Abstract
Protection from gravitational natural hazards such as snow avalanches and rockfall is among the most important ecosystem services provided by forests in steep mountain terrain such as the European Alps. These so-called “protection forests” often have to be actively managed to ensure a sustainable ecosystem service provision in time and space. For studying these slowly developing ecosystems, dynamic forest models are important tools to assess the effect of management on the protective function. However, existing models focus on the current protective effect and in many cases neglect aspects of stand resistance and resilience to large disturbances, which are important factors for maintaining the long-term protective function. Therefore, we developed ProForM, a new dynamic forest model aimed at (1) reproducing stand dynamics of managed temperate mountain forests and (2) assessing their protective function in detail. ProForM is a structurally simple model that contains mechanistic formulations of basic demographic processes but was developed mainly with empirical data. It is spatially explicit and was developed with a focus on regeneration dynamics. The model is parameterized for four tree species (Picea abies, Abies alba, Fagus sylvatica, and Acer pseudoplatanus) and four elevational zones, ranging from mixed species submontane to spruce-dominated subalpine forests. ProForM was calibrated with and validated against independent data from long-term forest inventories from Switzerland. It exhibited a satisfactory performance in reproducing measured basal area, stem number, diameter distribution and mean crown ratio at the stand level, comparable to the performance of other, typically more complex models. Illustrative example simulations demonstrate the assessment of the protective function of a stand against gravitational hazards according to multiple criteria used in forestry practice in Alpine countries. ProForM is a valuable new tool to study the impacts of management on the protective effect of mountain forests, and to inform forest managers.
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