Producers and important dietary sources of ochratoxin A and citrinin.

Vladimir Ostry,Jiri Ruprich,Frantisek Malir

doi:10.3390/toxins5091574

Abstract

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a very important mycotoxin, and its research is focused right now on the new findings of OTA, like being a complete carcinogen, information about OTA producers and new exposure sources of OTA. Citrinin (CIT) is another important mycotoxin, too, and its research turns towards nephrotoxicity. Both additive and synergistic effects have been described in combination with OTA. OTA is produced in foodstuffs by Aspergillus Section Circumdati (Aspergillus ochraceus, A. westerdijkiae, A. steynii) and Aspergillus Section Nigri (Aspergillus carbonarius, A. foetidus, A. lacticoffeatus, A. niger, A. sclerotioniger, A. tubingensis), mostly in subtropical and tropical areas. OTA is produced in foodstuffs by Penicillium verrucosum and P. nordicum, notably in temperate and colder zones. CIT is produced in foodstuffs by Monascus species (Monascus purpureus, M. ruber) and Penicillium species (Penicillium citrinum, P. expansum, P. radicicola, P. verrucosum). OTA was frequently found in foodstuffs of both plant origin (e.g., cereal products, coffee, vegetable, liquorice, raisins, wine) and animal origin (e.g., pork/poultry). CIT was also found in foodstuffs of vegetable origin (e.g., cereals, pomaceous fruits, black olive, roasted nuts, spices), food supplements based on rice fermented with red microfungi Monascus purpureus and in foodstuffs of animal origin (e.g., cheese).

Highlights

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a very important mycotoxin
CIT was found in foodstuffs of vegetable origin, food supplements based on rice fermented with red microfungi
A recent concern, not related to CIT as a Penicillium toxin, is the presence of CIT in food colorings traditionally made in Asia from rice fermented with Monascus purpureus (“red mold rice”), which have been used for centuries for meat preservation and food coloring [51]

Summary

Introduction

OTA is a nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, embryotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, immunotoxic, genotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin [1,2]. OTA exposure may lead to the formation of DNA adducts, resulting in genotoxicity and carcinogenicity (human carcinogens of the 2B group). It seems that OTA could be “a complete carcinogen” ( an initiator, and a promoter) and that its mutagenicity has been revised, obliging reinforcement of its monitorization in food [3,4,5,6]. In the Czech Republic, one of the EU Member States, a new assessment of dietary exposure and health risk characterization of OTA is currently taking place for 10 population groups of both sexes aged 4–90 years The low levels of CIT in processed foods may result from the fact that CIT is heat-sensitive and decomposes during heat treatment to form other complex compounds, such as CIT H1 and CIT H2, whose cytotoxicity, compared to the original CIT, is higher and lower, respectively [31,32,33]

OTA Producers

CIT Producers

Important Dietary Sources of OTA

Important Dietary Sources of CIT

Conclusions

Conflicts of Interest