Abstract
Adelgidae are a sister group of Aphididae and Phylloxeridae within Hemiptera, Aphidoidea and occur exclusively on Pinaceae. The piercing-sucking mouthparts of Adelgidae are similar to those of aphids and it is believed that adelgids ingest sap from both the non-vascular and vascular (phloem) tissues. The aim of the present study was to identify and characterize the adelgid stylet activities during their penetration in plant tissues. The probing behavior of Adelges laricis Vallot (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) on European larch Larix decidua Mill. and sucrose diets was monitored using the DC-EPG (Electrical Penetration Graph technique = electropenetrography). The EPG waveforms were described based on amplitude, frequency, voltage level, and electrical origin of the observed traces, and associated with putative behavioral activities based on analogy with aphid activities. Waveform frequency, duration, and sequence were analysed as well. A. laricis generated EPG signals at two clearly distinct voltage levels positive and negative, suggesting extracellular and intracellular stylet penetration, respectively. The adelgid EPG patterns were ascribed to four behavioral phases, which were non-probing, pathway, phloem, and xylem phases. Non-probing referred to the position of the stylets outside the plant tissues. Pathway phase was represented by three waveform patterns that visualized extracellular stylet penetration in non-vascular tissues without potential drops (AC1), with serial short (1.2–1.5 s) potential drops (AC2), and with ‘aphid-like’ (5–10 s) potential drops (AC3). Phloem phase comprised three waveform patterns at intracellular level, which in all probability represented phloem salivation (AE1), and phloem sap passive (AE2) and active ingestion (AE3). AE3 was a newly described waveform, previously unreported from Hemiptera. Waveform AG represented the ingestion of xylem sap. The comparative analysis demonstrated that the gymnosperm-associated adelgids show certain similarities in probing behavior typical of aphids and phylloxerids on angiosperm plants. The present work is the first detailed analysis of specific adelgid stylet activities on gymnosperms.
Highlights
The conifer wooly aphids Adelgidae comprise 65 described species that occur exclusively on conifers and are highly host tree specific [1,2]
The Electrical penetration graph (EPG) waveforms generated by larch wooly adelgids during stylet penetration in European larch needles were classified according to the waveform morphology and electrical characteristics
The EPG waveform patterns were ascribed to four major behavioral phases that have previously been distinguished in aphid stylet penetration activities on plants, which were nonprobing (Np), pathway (C), phloem (E), and xylem (G) phases
Summary
The conifer wooly aphids Adelgidae comprise 65 described species that occur exclusively on conifers and are highly host tree specific [1,2]. The infestation of trees by adelgids may cause the production of abnormal wood, induction of galls, and limitation of branch development. Adelgid infestation of cones and needles can reduce seed yields, cause chlorosis and twisting or abscission of needles, reducing the tree vigour. Adelgids produce copious wax and honeydew and if infestation is heavy, a mass of wax wool, honeydew and cast skins accumulates on the host tree [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]
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