Probable diphyletic formation of the mammalian middle ear: Monotremata and Theria

Abstract

The first steps in the formation of the middle ear of the mammalian type, with the tympanum and three auditory ossicles, have only been passed by higher cynodonts. They have an incipient malleus, which developed from the anterior process of the articulare rather than the retroarticular process, which is rudimentary in cynodonts. The tympanic bone is formed of the anterior projections of the angulare. In some gorgonopians, the retroarticular process is elongated and curved anteriorly, resembling the malleus of mammals; however, this is only convergent similarity.