Abstract
Human provisioning of wildlife with food is a widespread global practice that occurs in multiple socio-cultural circumstances. Provisioning may indirectly alter ecosystem functioning through changes in the eco-ethology of animals, but few studies have quantified this aspect. Provisioning of primates by humans is known to impact their activity budgets, diets and ranging patterns. Primates are also keystone species in tropical forests through their role as seed dispersers; yet there is no information on how provisioning might affect primate ecological functions. The rhesus macaque is a major human-commensal species but is also an important seed disperser in the wild. In this study, we investigated the potential impacts of provisioning on the role of rhesus macaques as seed dispersers in the Buxa Tiger Reserve, India. We studied a troop of macaques which were provisioned for a part of the year and were dependent on natural resources for the rest. We observed feeding behaviour, seed handling techniques and ranging patterns of the macaques and monitored availability of wild fruits. Irrespective of fruit availability, frugivory and seed dispersal activities decreased when the macaques were provisioned. Provisioned macaques also had shortened daily ranges implying shorter dispersal distances. Finally, during provisioning periods, seeds were deposited on tarmac roads that were unconducive for germination. Provisioning promotes human-primate conflict, as commensal primates are often involved in aggressive encounters with humans over resources, leading to negative consequences for both parties involved. Preventing or curbing provisioning is not an easy task as feeding wild animals is a socio-cultural tradition across much of South and South-East Asia, including India. We recommend the initiation of literacy programmes that educate lay citizens about the ill-effects of provisioning and strongly caution them against the practice.
Highlights
Human provisioning of wildlife with food is a widespread global practice that occurs in multiple socio-cultural contexts
In the month of May, the number of tourists was minimal; macaques had no access to tourist provisioning during this month apart from the period when Buxa Tiger Reserve (BTR) was closed to visitors (June to September)
The degree of provisioning was not related to Fruit Availability Index (FAI) (r = -0.3, p = 0.33)
Summary
Human provisioning of wildlife with food is a widespread global practice that occurs in multiple socio-cultural contexts. Provisioning may be inadvertent when farms, plantations, home gardens, waste food dumps and kitchens become sources of food for animals [4]. Provisioned food resources tend to be high-calorie, digestible, spatio-temporally predictable and available in greater proportions than natural resources in a given area [5, 6]. The effects of such human food subsidies on wildlife species are varied and may range from increase in body size and fertility at the individual level to altered foraging and migratory behaviour at the population level [3]. Provisioning is predicted to alter or modify ecosystem services and evolutionary processes through its impact on food webs and community assemblages [2, 3]
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