Abstract
Relocation is one of the mitigating measures taken by either local people or related officers to reduce the human-bonnet macaque Macaca radiata conflict in India. The review on relocations of primates in India indicates that monkeys are unscreened for diseases or gastrointestinal parasites (henceforth endoparasites) before relocation. We collected 161 spatial samples from 20 groups of bonnet macaque across their distribution range in south India and 205 temporal samples from a group in Chiksuli in the central Western Ghats. The isolation of endoparasite eggs/cysts from the fecal samples was by the centrifugation flotation and sedimentation method. All the sampled groups, except one, had an infection of at least one endoparasite taxa, and a total of 21 endoparasite taxon were recorded. The number of helminth taxon (16) were more than protozoan (5), further, among helminths, nematodes (11) were more common than cestodes (5). Although the prevalence of Ascaris sp. (26.0%), Strongyloides sp. (13.0%), and Coccidia sp. (13.0%) were greater, the load of Entamoeba coli, Giardia sp., Dipylidium caninum and Diphyllobothrium sp. were very high. Distant groups had more similarity in composition of endoparasites taxon than closely located groups. Among all the variables, the degree of provisioning was the topmost determinant factor for the endoparasite taxon richness and their load. Temporal sampling indicates that the endoparasite infection remains continuous throughout the year. Monthly rainfall and average maximum temperature in the month did not influence the endoparasite richness. A total of 17 taxon of helminths and four-taxon of protozoan were recorded. The prevalence of Oesophagostomum sp., and Strongyloides sp., and mean egg load of Spirurids and Trichuris sp. was higher than other endoparasite taxon. The overall endoparasite load and helminth load was higher in immatures than adults, where, adult females had the highest protozoan load in the monsoon. The findings indicate that relocation of commensal bonnet macaque to wild habitat can possible to lead transmission of novel endoparasites that can affect their population. Thus, we suggest avoidance of such relocations, however, if inevitable the captured animals need to be screened and treated for diseases and endoparasites before relocations.
Highlights
Commensalism is an association between two species, where one species is benefited but does not harm or benefit the other [1, 2]
Of the 25 instances of relocations between 1988–2017 (S 1), except for one instance of hoolock gibbon (Hoolock leuconedys) being relocated from a forest fragment to another habitat, all relocations were of bonnet macaques (N = 13) and rhesus macaques (N = 11)
Rhesus macaques were re-translocated from Sariska Tiger Reserve to avoid endoparasite infection to other native animals
Summary
Commensalism is an association between two species, where one species is benefited but does not harm or benefit the other [1, 2]. Many commensal primates are considered as pests [8], since they raid and damage crops, and cause significant economic loss to farmers [9] They are considered as a menace across their natural range as they snatch food and injure people, raid homes and cause damage to households [10]. As such conflict has been a part of the ecosystem for a long time, people have been taking their own measures to keep the animals away from human habitations or agriculture fields [11,12,13]. The act permits the killing or capturing of animals that are listed as ‘vermin’ [17]
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