Abstract
Herpesviruses have been reported in several marsupial species, but molecular classification has been limited to four herpesviruses in macropodids, a gammaherpesvirus in two antechinus species (Antechinus flavipes and Antechinus agilis), a gammaherpesvirus in a potoroid, the eastern bettong (Bettongia gaimardi) and two gammaherpesviruses in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus). In this study we examined a range of Australian marsupials for the presence of herpesviruses using molecular and serological techniques, and also assessed risk factors associated with herpesvirus infection. Our study population included 99 koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus), 96 eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus), 50 Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii) and 33 common wombats (Vombatus ursinius). In total, six novel herpesviruses (one alphaherpesvirus and five gammaherpesviruses) were identified in various host species. The overall prevalence of detection of herpesvirus DNA in our study population was 27.2% (95% confidence interval (CI) of 22.6–32.2%), but this varied between species and reached as high as 45.4% (95% CI 28.1–63.7%) in common wombats. Serum antibodies to two closely related macropodid herpesviruses (macropodid herpesvirus 1 and 2) were detected in 44.3% (95% CI 33.1–55.9%) of animals tested. This also varied between species and was as high as 92% (95% CI 74.0–99.0%) in eastern grey kangaroos. A number of epidemiological variables were identified as positive predictors for the presence of herpesvirus DNA in the marsupial samples evaluated. The most striking association was observed in koalas, where the presence of Chlamydia pecorum DNA was strongly associated with the presence of herpesvirus DNA (Odds Ratio = 60, 95% CI 12.1–297.8). Our results demonstrate the common presence of herpesviruses in Australian marsupials and provide directions for future research.
Highlights
Herpesviruses are enveloped, double stranded DNA viruses that have been identified in species across the animal kingdom, including vertebrate and invertebrate species
The findings demonstrate the common presence of herpesvirus infection in Australian marsupials and describe a number of important epidemiological associations
Herpesvirus DNA was detected from a number of different anatomical sites in the marsupial species tested, this information could be used to help inform sample collection strategies for future studies
Summary
Herpesviruses are enveloped, double stranded DNA viruses that have been identified in species across the animal kingdom, including vertebrate and invertebrate species. Herpesvirus infections are characterised by a primary infection event, with or without acute disease, followed by variable periods of subclinical latency, with subsequent episodes of virus reactivation and shedding during periods of stress or immune-compromise. It is this biological strategy that contributes significantly to the survival and dissemination success of herpesviruses in their host species [2]. Herpesviruses were first identified in Australian marsupials in 1975 when an outbreak of disease and sudden death in a group of captive parma wallabies (Macropus parma) led to the isolation of what is known as Macropodid herpesvirus 1 (MaHV-1) from the renal tissue of an affected animal [3]. Whilst herpesvirus particles have been detected by electron microscopy in a common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) [14], molecular detection and classification of wombat herpesviruses have not previously been reported
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