Preserving Regulating and Cultural Ecosystem Services: Transformation, Degradation and Conservation Status

Abstract

For many years humans have benefited from provisioning services such as meat from hunting of wild animals, raw material and livestock grazing; regulating services such as water and climate regulation; supporting services such as soil fertility; and cultural services such as recreation. These Ecosystem Services (ESs) are now being degraded and used unsustainably around the world. Understanding the levels of threats facing various ESs and their conservation status is important for safeguarding them. In this study, the degradation and transformation of five regulating ESs in South Africa have been examined. Results showed that at least 10 % of the total hotspot area and 20 % of the total area that provide substantial amount (the range) of all five ESs has been transformed or degraded. The range of water regulation and supply had the highest level of transformation (30 and 27 %, respectively). The range of carbon storage revealed the highest degradation (10 %) followed by surface water supply (9 %). Amongst the hotspots, again, water flow regulation and supply showed the highest levels of transformation (33 and 25 %, respectively). The hotspot of water supply was the most degraded (12 %). More than 60 % of all transformations that occurred within the hotpots and the ranges of all five ESs could be attributed to cultivation. The second most common driver of transformations were plantations. Although protected areas presented an opportunity for safeguarding ESs, they are rarely included in the identification of areas for the establishment of protected areas. Important areas for providing several ESs in Europe and Africa continue to be found outside protected areas. Apart from recreational services, at least 80 % of such areas remain outside protected areas. Conservation strategies for ESs need to be urgently developed to safeguard them. Effective strategies should consider the benefit of multiple ESs such as provisioning, regulating and supporting services inside and outside protected areas.