Abstract
Alkylresorcinols (ARs) were first proposed as potential biomarkers of wholegrain wheat and rye intake a decade ago. Since then there has been a considerable body of research which suggests that ARs do meet most criteria of a biomarker of these foods. Results from human studies on plasma AR and their plasma and urinary metabolites strongly indicate that these compounds are responsive to whole grain wheat and rye intake and are correlated with various measures of AR consumption. This review briefly summarises work on the bioactivities of AR and focuses on aspects related to their use as biomarkers of whole grain wheat and rye intake. Evidence suggests that they thus far broadly fulfil the criteria to act as biomarkers of these cereals. However, there are still gaps in the knowledge on factors relating to the wide interindividual variation, and application to different epidemiological cohorts. Overall, ARs are highly promising biomarkers of whole grain wheat and rye intake and add to our increasing understanding of whole grains and health.
Highlights
Many epidemiological studies link a greater intake of wholegrain (WG) cereals to a decreased risk of many diet-related diseases including cardiovascular disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and some types of cancer [1,2,3,4]
ARs are 3,5-dihydroxy-phenolic lipids with an odd-numbered alkyl chain generally ranging from C15 to C25, and among food plants, only found in appreciable quantities in wheat, rye, barley, and triticale [9] (Figure 1)
Even white flour contains low amounts of AR (20–50 μg/g; [16]), meaning that sufficiently sensitive methods (e.g., gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to either CoulArray electrochemical detection (HPLC-CAED) or fluorescence detection) could be suitable for this purpose
Summary
Many epidemiological studies link a greater intake of wholegrain (WG) cereals to a decreased risk of many diet-related diseases including cardiovascular disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and some types of cancer [1,2,3,4]. In nutritional epidemiology, collecting valid dietary intake data, especially with food frequency questionnaires (FFQs), is challenging and remains one of the main weaknesses of this type of research [5]. In the early part of this century, alkylresorcinols (ARs) were proposed as potential biomarkers of wholegrain wheat and rye intake [8]. ARs are 3,5-dihydroxy-phenolic lipids with an odd-numbered alkyl chain generally ranging from C15 to C25, and among food plants, only found in appreciable quantities in wheat, rye, barley, and triticale (a wheat × rye hybrid) [9] (Figure 1). Estimates for average daily intake range from 12 mg in the United Kingdom to nearly 40 mg in Finland [20], though this may underestimate intakes at the low end of the range as the small amounts present in white wheat flour were not accounted for [16]
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