Abstract
In this study, we aimed to prepare stable water-in-oil (W/O) nanoemulsions loaded with a phenolic-rich aqueous phase from olive cake extract by applying the response surface methodology and using two methods: rotor-stator mixing and ultrasonic homogenization. The optimal nanoemulsion formulation was 7.4% (w/w) of olive cake extract as the dispersed phase, and 11.2% (w/w) of a surfactant mixture of polyglycerol polyricinoleate (97%) and Tween 80 (3%) in Miglyol oil as the continuous phase. Optimum results were obtained by ultrasonication for 15 min at 20% amplitude, yielding W/O nanoemulsion droplets of 104.9 ± 6.7 nm in diameter and with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.156 ± 0.085. Furthermore, an optimal nanoemulsion with a droplet size of 105.8 ± 10.3 nm and a PDI of 0.255 ± 0.045 was prepared using a rotor-stator mixer for 10.1 min at 20,000 rpm. High levels of retention of antioxidant activity (90.2%) and phenolics (83.1–87.2%) were reached after 30 days of storage at room temperature. Both W/O nanoemulsions showed good physical stability during this storage period.
Highlights
Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions and nanoemulsions are widely used systems in foods, medicines, and cosmetics for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds [1,2,3]
W/O nanoemulsions consist of nanosized water droplets dispersed in an oil phase through the action of emulsifiers, which may appear transparent or translucent because of their narrow droplet size distribution [4]
W/O emulsions and nanoemulsions can be used for the encapsulation of amino acids [5], iron [6], gallic acid [7], and other bioactive compounds [8], and as fat replacers in the development of reduced-fat solid and liquid food formulations [8,9,10,11]
Summary
Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions and nanoemulsions are widely used systems in foods, medicines, and cosmetics for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactive compounds [1,2,3]. W/O emulsions and nanoemulsions can be used for the encapsulation of amino acids [5], iron [6], gallic acid [7], and other bioactive compounds [8], and as fat replacers in the development of reduced-fat solid and liquid food formulations [8,9,10,11]. This last application has generated increased interest in recent years to meet consumer demands. These compounds are prone to degradation due to adverse environmental conditions, but their stability and bioavailability can be improved by encapsulation [17,18,19], mainly in single emulsions [20,21,22], double emulsions [23,24,25], or in emulsion gels [11]
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