Abstract
Aquaculture feed manufacturers and producers increasingly recognize the importance of mycotoxins, which contaminate plant-based meals used in compound aquafeeds, and their potential to negatively impact production. Though data on the worldwide occurrence of legislated mycotoxins e.g., trichothecenes and zearalenone (ZEN) are well documented, relatively little information is available regarding other mycotoxins also produced by Fusarium, notably moniliformin (MON). Given that MON is known to affect the survival, growth, skeletal formation and bone mineralization in terrestrial species, its widespread occurrence on maize and maize by-products typically used in aquaculture makes it relevant to study these parameters in teleost fish. In the present work we have tested the effect of MON exposure on survival, bone development and mineralization using zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model species and fish derived osteo-chondroprogenitor cell line for in vitro studies. Moniliformin exposure did not decrease bone mineralization in zebrafish larvae or extracellular matrix mineralization in the mineralogenic cell line VSa13. Here, the minimal in vitro cytotoxicity concentration was found to be 1000 µg L−1 MON. Incidence of deformities was also not altered by MON at the concentration tested (450 µg L−1) although larval growth was affected, as shown by a decrease in the standard length of exposed specimens at 20 days post fertilization. Survival decreased significantly in larvae exposed to MON concentrations higher than 900 μg L−1. Influence of MON on survival and growth might be relevant for aquaculture industry. As MON is a water-soluble mycotoxin, its leaching from feed is highly probable, so MON assimilation into the surrounding aqueous environment should also be considered. Tested levels in fish larvae are within the reported occurrence levels of MON in commercial feed and plant meals.
Highlights
Climate change is expected to affect feed and food production systems, both in terms of productivity and safety
Incidence of deformities was not altered by MON at the concentration tested (450 μg L−1 ) larval growth was affected, as shown by a decrease in the standard length of exposed specimens at 20 days post fertilization
The present study aims to evaluate the toxicity of MON over the mineralization/development of bone structures and its influence on survival, growth and gene expression using zebrafish (Danio rerio) as model species for in vivo experiments and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) mineralogenic cell line
Summary
Climate change is expected to affect feed and food production systems, both in terms of productivity and safety. The presence of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. is expected to increase due to climate change [1,2,3]. The genus Fusarium includes several species, which are important pathogens of maize and small grains, producing among other mycotoxins, trichothecenes and zearalenone (ZEN). While for trichothecenes and zearalenone, data on worldwide toxicity, occurrence, and contamination levels are available [4,5], for other metabolites produced by Fusarium spp., such as moniliformin (MON), fusaproliferin (FUS), beauvericin (BEA) or enniatins (ENNs), limited information is available. Besides the typical legislated Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM) and ZEN, the occurrence of which is reportedly on the Fishes 2018, 3, 4; doi:10.3390/fishes3010004 www.mdpi.com/journal/fishes
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