Abstract
In everyday behavior, we perform numerous goal-directed manual tasks that contain a sequence of actions. However, knowledge is limited regarding developmental aspects of predictive control mechanisms in such tasks, particularly with regard to brain activations supporting sequential manual actions in children. We investigated these issues in typically developing children at early adolescence (11–14 years) compared with previously collected data from adults. While lying in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner, the participants steered a cursor on a computer screen towards sequentially presented targets using a hand-held manipulandum. The next target was either revealed after completion of the ongoing target (one-target condition), in which case forthcoming movements could not be planned ahead, or displayed in advance (two-target condition), which allowed the use of a predictive control strategy. The adults completed more targets in the two- than one-target condition, displaying an efficient predictive control strategy. The children, in contrast, completed fewer targets in the two- than one-target condition, and difficulties implementing a predictive strategy were found due to a limited capacity to inhibit premature movements. Brain areas with increased activation in children, compared with the adults, included prefrontal and posterior parietal regions, suggesting an increased demand for higher-level cognitive processing in the children due to inhibitory challenges. Thus, regarding predictive mechanisms during sequential manual tasks, crucial development likely occurs beyond early adolescence. This is at a later age than what has previously been reported from other manual tasks, suggesting that predictive phase transitions are difficult to master.
Highlights
Most manual tasks involve sequentially linked actions, or action phases, such as grasping, lifting, transporting and replacing a cup on a table when drinking coffee
The target rate was lower for all children in the two-target compared with the one-target condition (t(15) 1⁄4 À8.49, p < 0.0001; Fig. 2B, right bar)
Adults had an increased overall task performance in the two-target compared with the one-target condition
Summary
Most manual tasks involve sequentially linked actions, or action phases, such as grasping, lifting, transporting and replacing a cup on a table when drinking coffee. We perform such tasks seemingly effortlessly, they require intricate sensorimotor processing, where important control operations relate to discrete multimodal events that demarcate action phases (Flanagan et al, 2006; Johansson and Flanagan, 2009). Infants and toddlers display differences in reaching kinematics depending on the ultimate action goal, demonstrating a fundamental predictive ability when performing sequential actions (Chen et al, 2010; Claxton et al, 2003).
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