Abstract
The dose-response effects of the intensity of exercise upon the potential regulation (through top-down processes) of affective (pleasure-displeasure) responses in the prefrontal cortex during an incremental exercise protocol have not been explored. This study examined the functional capacity of the prefrontal cortex (reflected by haemodynamics using near infrared spectroscopy) and affective responses during exercise at different intensities. Participants completed an incremental cycling exercise test to exhaustion. Changes (Δ) in oxygenation (O2Hb), deoxygenation (HHb), blood volume (tHb) and haemoglobin difference (HbDiff) were measured from bilateral dorsal and ventral prefrontal areas. Affective responses were measured every minute during exercise. Data were extracted at intensities standardised to: below ventilatory threshold, at ventilatory threshold, respiratory compensation point and the end of exercise. During exercise at intensities from ventilatory threshold to respiratory compensation point, ΔO2Hb, ΔHbDiff and ΔtHb were greater in mostly ventral than dorsal regions. From the respiratory compensation point to the end of exercise, ΔO2Hb remained stable and ΔHbDiff declined in dorsal regions. As the intensity increased above the ventilatory threshold, inverse associations between affective responses and oxygenation in (a) all regions of the left hemisphere and (b) lateral (dorsal and ventral) regions followed by the midline (ventral) region in the right hemisphere were observed. Differential activation patterns occur within the prefrontal cortex and are associated with affective responses during cycling exercise.
Highlights
A dose-response relationship exists between the intensity of exercise and the pleasure-displeasure individuals feel [1], [2]
Three hypotheses were examined: 1) activation in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is different in sub regions at intensities of exercise above the ventilatory threshold (VT); 2) affective responses are more positive at exercise intensities corresponding to below VT and more negative at exercise intensities corresponding to respiratory compensation point (RCP) and the end of exercise; and 3) activation in sub regions of the PFC is associated with affective responses during exercise
The pattern of the cerebral haemodynamic and affective responses were examined at intensities of exercise standardised to individual gas exchange thresholds [48], [50], and data were extracted at time points corresponding to below VT, VT, RCP and the end of exercise
Summary
A dose-response relationship exists between the intensity of exercise and the pleasure-displeasure individuals feel [1], [2]. In line with the dual-mode model, the functional capacity of the PFC to regulate affective responses, presumably through cognitive control (i.e. appraisal, inhibition and/or suppression) and lateralised processes during exercise intensities relative to the VT and RCP has not been explored. According to the dual-mode model, a reduction in oxygenation (DO2Hb) in the presence of increased deoxygenation (DHHb) might indicate reduced neuronal activation and a reduced functional capacity of the PFC, which may influence the onset of negative affective responses. The present study investigates the functional capacity (activation in sub regions) of the PFC (reflected by haemodynamics using multi-channel NIRS) and affective responses during exercise at intensities standardised to below VT, VT, RCP and the end of exercise (recommended by Ekkekakis [50] and Rooks et al [48]). Three hypotheses were examined: 1) activation in the PFC is different in sub regions (dorsal and ventral area) at intensities of exercise above the VT; 2) affective responses are more positive at exercise intensities corresponding to below VT and more negative at exercise intensities corresponding to RCP and the end of exercise; and 3) activation in sub regions of the PFC is associated with affective responses during exercise
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