Abstract
Research on the spatial patterns of human-wildlife conflict is fundamental to understanding the mechanisms underlying it and to identifying opportunities for mitigation. In the state of Xishuangbanna, containing China’s largest tropical forest, an imbalance between nature conservation and economic development has led to increasing conflicts between humans and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), as both elephant numbers and conversion of habitable land to rubber plantations have increased over the last several decades. We analyzed government data on the compensation costs of elephant-caused damage in Xishuangbanna between 2008 and 2012 to understand the spatial and temporal patterns of conflict, in terms of their occurrence, frequency and distribution. More than 18,261 incidents were reported, including episodes involving damage to rubber trees (n = 10,999), damage to crops such as paddy, upland rice, corn, bananas and sugarcane (n = 11,020), property loss (n = 689) and attacks on humans (n = 19). The conflict data reconfirmed the presence of elephants in areas which have lacked records since the late 1990s. Zero Altered Negative Binomial models revealed that the risk of damage to crops and plantations increased with proximity to protected areas, increasing distance from roads, and lower settlement density. The patterns were constant across seasons and types of crop damaged. Damage to rubber trees was essentially incidental as elephants searched for crops to eat. A predictive map of risks revealed hotspots of conflict within and around protected areas, the last refuges for elephants in the region, and along habitat corridors connecting them. Additionally, we analyzed how mitigation efforts can best diminish the risk of conflict while minimizing financial costs and adverse biological impacts. Our analytical approach can be adopted, adjusted and expanded to other areas with historical records of human-wildlife conflict.
Highlights
Developing effective prevention and mitigation plans for human wildlife conflicts is a top conservation priority in many areas of the world [1], including China where the conversion of tropical forests to rubber plantations is threatening critical populations of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
XSBN contains the largest area of tropical forest and 85% of all the elephants in the country [8], concentrated in three subreserves: Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong [9]
The higher frequency of human-elephant conflict (HEC) incidents during the rainy season probably stems from the maturation of crops, which are nutritious, predictable and palatable [54, 55]
Summary
Developing effective prevention and mitigation plans for human wildlife conflicts is a top conservation priority in many areas of the world [1], including China where the conversion of tropical forests to rubber plantations is threatening critical populations of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). In the State of Xishuangbanna in Southwest China, the conflicts with elephants due to damage to crops and plantations are an increasing cause of concern for both conservationists and developers. Widely distributed south of the Yangzi River, the growth of human populations led to their rapid withdrawal southwards [7] and they are restricted to three states in southwest Yunnan Province [5]: Linchang, Simao, and Xishuangbanna (XSBN). XSBN contains the largest area of tropical forest and 85% of all the elephants in the country [8], concentrated in three subreserves: Mengyang, Mengla and Shangyong [9]
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