Abstract
BackgroundIndustrial and agricultural activities result in elevated levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the local environment. PTEs can enter the human body through the food chain and pose severe health risks to inhabitants. In this study, PTE levels in maize, soil, and irrigation water were detected, and health risks through maize consumption were evaluated.MethodsMaize, soil, and irrigation water samples were collected in northern Ningxia, China. Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry was applied to determine the contents of six PTEs. Bioaccumulation factor was used to reflect the transfer potential of a metal from soil to maize. Health risks associated with maize consumption were assessed by deterministic and probabilistic estimation. Sensitivity analysis was performed to determine variables that pose the greatest effect on health risk results.ResultsThe levels of Pb and Cr in maize exceeded the standards, while the PTE levels in soil and irrigation water did not exceed the corresponding standards. The bioaccumulation factor values of the six PTEs in maize were all lower than 1 and followed the order of Cd > Zn = As > Cr > Cu > Pb. The hazard index (0.0986) was far less than 1 for all inhabitants implying no obvious non-carcinogenic risk. The carcinogenic risk value was 3.261 × 10− 5, which was lower than the maximum acceptable level of 1 × 10− 4 suggested by United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Females were at greater risk than males, and the age group of below 20 years had the greater risk among all the groups evaluated. Approximately 0.62% of inhabitants exceeded the level for non-carcinogenic risk, while 8.23% exceeded the level for carcinogenic risk. The As concentration and daily intake of maize contributed 35.8, and 29.4% for non-carcinogenic risk results as well as 61.0 and 18.5% for carcinogenic risk results.ConclusionsMaize was contaminated by Pb and Cr, whereas the associated soil and irrigation water were not contaminated by PTEs. Inhabitants would not suffer obvious harmful health risks through maize consumption. Arsenic level and daily intake of maize were the most sensitive factors that impact health risks.
Highlights
Industrial and agricultural activities result in elevated levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the local environment
Arsenic (As) is a metalloid, it is considered as a metal in many studies because it behaves similar to a PTE in many aspects
The Zn level in the soil measured in this study was remarkably higher than the background value, the Cr level was lower, and the levels of the other metals were similar to the background values
Summary
Industrial and agricultural activities result in elevated levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the local environment. In China, the environment is more heavily contaminated by PTEs in regions with higher degrees of industrialization. Industrial wastes such as waste water, waste residue, and flue gas can affect the surrounding agricultural land, water, and air. Cadmium (Cd) exposure can cause adverse health effects, including damage to the lung, liver, testicles, brain, bone, and blood system along with cancer; Cd can accumulate for 10 to 20 years in the human body and is considered one of the most toxic PTEs [7,8,9]. Some PTEs including copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and chromium (Cr) are considered essential micronutrients at low concentrations [14, 15], they can pose non-carcinogenic hazardous effects on human health when present at concentrations exceeding the tolerable doses [16]
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