Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are a group of phytoplankton produced toxins related to shellfish food products, some of which are already present in UK and European waters. Their risk to shellfish consumers is poorly understood, as while no human intoxication has been definitively related to this group, their fast acting toxicity following intraperitoneal injection in mice has led to concern over their human health implications. A request was therefore made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely to aid possible management strategies. Of the CI producers only the spirolide producer Alexandrium ostenfeldii is known to exist in UK waters at present but trends in climate change may lead to increased risk from other organisms/CI toxins currently present elsewhere in Europe and in similar environments worldwide. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of CIs and CI-producing phytoplankton, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.
Highlights
The cyclic imines (CIs) are a heterogeneous group of marine natural products with common macrocyclic features and an active imine moiety [1]
In a review of the liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis of 217 shellfish samples collected in New Zealand between 1993 and 1999 and covering eight different species, GYM was detected in 155 of these, with a maximum concentration as high as 23,400 μg/kg [62]
Whilst the LC-MS/MS lipophilic toxin method has been validated in individual laboratories for GYM-A and 13-desmethyl SPX-C, neither are these toxins reported to the regulators nor are other CIs currently incorporated into monitoring methods
Summary
The cyclic imines (CIs) are a heterogeneous group of marine natural products with common macrocyclic features and an active imine moiety [1]. CIs are sometimes referred to as “fast-acting toxins” as they are characterised by acute toxicity in mice following intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection and rapid onset of neurological symptoms potentially leading to death if the compounds are present in sufficient concentrations. The European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) working group on toxicology proposed a guidance level of 400 μg SPXs/kg of shellfish [12,13]. Given their potential impact on human health, CIs were included in a review of biotoxin risks in UK waters commissioned by the UK food safety authorities, the results of which are presented here
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