Post-translational histone modifications and their interaction with sex influence normal brain development and elaboration of neuropsychiatric disorders

Abstract

Sex differences in the risk for and expression of various brain disorders have been known for some time. Yet, the molecular underpinnings of these sex differences as well as how sex modifies normal brain development are still poorly understood. It has recently become known that epigenetic mechanisms play an essential role in establishing and maintaining sex differences in neurodevelopment and disease susceptibility. Epigenetic mechanisms such as post-translational modifications of histones (histone PTMs) integrate various hormonal and external environmental influences to affect genomic output, and this appears to occur in a sex-dependent manner. The present review aims to highlight current understanding of the role of histone PTMs in the sexual differentiation of the brain under normal conditions and how sex-specific modulation of histone PTMs may be involved in psychiatric conditions including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, and major depressive disorder (MDD). The role of sex chromosome genes as sex-specific histone modifiers and their importance in sexually differentiating the brain will be discussed. Further, the contribution of sex-specific histone PTM marks in the placenta in programming the sexually dimorphic developmental course of the brain and susceptibility to diseases/disorders will be reviewed. Prenatal programming may have a long-lasting effect on the adult brain and behavior but due to the interaction of histone PTMs and its modifiers with fluctuating hormone levels and external influences over the lifespan, the process remains dynamic. Although a few studies indicate an association between sex and histone PTM-related mechanisms in ASD, schizophrenia, and MDD, more research is needed to fully appreciate the interactive effects of histone PTMs and sex in the development and manifestation of these disorders. Understanding the interactions between sex and histone PTMs will advance our understanding of psychiatric disorders and potentially guide development of future treatments tailored specifically to each sex.