Abstract
Background: Low serum vitamin D levels are reported constantly among females living in the Arabian Gulf countries, presumably due to their lifestyle, which limits direct sun exposure. Because Vitamin D deficiency has been implicated in a wide range of ailments, healthy females with the deficiency might be at risk for developing many health problems. Thus, the aim was to assess lifestyle risk factors for vitamin D deficiency in healthy women in Kuwait. Methods: A total of 104, disease-free, premenopausal women were recruited for assessment of their serum 25OHD and intact PTH levels. Physical examination, blood withdrawal and interviewer-administered questionnaires were used to collect the relevant data. Associations were detected statistically using nonparametric tests and logistic regression was used to identify risk factors for vitamin D deficiency. Results: Vitamin D deficiency ( < 25 nmol/L) occurred in 84.6%, and hyperparathyroidism ( ≥ 6.9 pmol/L) occurred in 25% of women, among which all were vitamin D deficient. Significant risk factors of vitamin D deficiency were nondaily milk intake (OR:25, CI%:4.2–147), no fish intake (OR:5, CI%:1–22.8), and no weekend sun exposure (OR:8.2, CI%:1.28–52.6). Having PTH ≥ 6 pmol/L was also associated with a higher likelihood of having vitamin D deficiency. Conclusion: Vitamin D deficiency is very common in disease-free, premenopausal Kuwaiti women and can be avoided by improving food consumption and obtaining more sun exposure.
Highlights
Low serum vitamin D levels are reported constantly among females living in the Arabian Gulf countries, presumably due to their lifestyle, which limits direct sun exposure
Studies have shown that Black, Hispanic, and Asian individuals have a higher risk of vitamin D deficiency than White Caucasian individuals.[1,2]
Hyperparathyroidism has been frequently demonstrated as a significant risk factor in vitamin D deficiency,[8] and low consumption of certain foods has been reported to predict vitamin D deficiency, with low milk consumption being the most common predictor.[9]
Summary
Low serum vitamin D levels are reported constantly among females living in the Arabian Gulf countries, presumably due to their lifestyle, which limits direct sun exposure. The aim was to assess lifestyle risk factors for vitamin D deficiency in healthy women in Kuwait. Significant risk factors of vitamin D deficiency were nondaily milk intake (OR:[25], CI%:4.2–147), no fish intake (OR:[5], CI%:1–22.8), and no weekend sun exposure (OR:8.2, CI%:1.28–52.6). Conclusion: Vitamin D deficiency is very common in disease-free, premenopausal Kuwaiti women and can be avoided by improving food consumption and obtaining more sun exposure. Studies have shown that Black, Hispanic, and Asian individuals have a higher risk of vitamin D deficiency than White Caucasian individuals.[1,2] Vitamin D deficiency has been shown to occur more frequently in winter and spring versus summer and fall.[1,3] Higher rates of vitamin D deficiency have been found in obese and overweight individuals than in normal weight individuals.[1,4] Dress type and the amount of skin area covered has been associated with lower serum levels of vitamin D and higher rates of vitamin D deficiency.[5,6,7] Hyperparathyroidism has been frequently demonstrated as a significant risk factor in vitamin D deficiency,[8] and low consumption of certain foods has been reported to predict vitamin D deficiency, with low milk consumption being the most common predictor.[9]
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