Abstract
Selected species of cyanobacteria and green algae have been reported to produce lipophilic polymethoxy-1-alkenes (PMAs) which were shown to exhibit in vivo teratogenicity. Considering that information on PMAs in Arthospira sp. (known commercially as Spirulina) and Chlorella sp. cultivated for food supplement production was essentially lacking, the present study screened Chlorella (n = 10) and Spirulina (n = 13) food supplements registered in the European Union. Mass spectrometry analysis of column fractionated extracts was performed. None of the four variants previously reported in some cyanobacteria and green algae, nor any potentially related structures were detected in the studied samples. Since the isolated lipophilic fractions contained various compounds, they were further screened for in vivo teratogenicity in Danio rerio embryo, and for the potential to induce oxidative stress and genotoxicity in the liver and neurotoxicity in the brain of adult zebrafish. None of the tested food supplements had detectable levels of PMAs or any potentially related structures. No teratogenicity was revealed except for spinal curvature induced by fractions obtained from two Chlorella products. Selected fractions revealed cytotoxicity as indicated by an increased level of reactive oxygen species, catalase activity, lipid peroxidation and increased frequency of DNA strand breaks in hepatic tissue. The majority (60%) of Chlorella fractions induced an increase in cholinesterase activity in zebrafish brain homogenate while exposure to 61.5% of Spirulina fractions was associated with its decrease. The present study confirms that Chlorella and Spirulina food supplements are free of teratogenic PMAs, although the observed in vivo toxicities raise questions regarding the quality of selected products.
Highlights
There is increasing interest in microalgal food supplements and other microalgae-based foodstuffs
The consumption of food supplements based on Chlorella or Arthrospira biomass has not been associated with health risks, and both are considered safe and are approved by food regulatory bodies such as the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) or the Food and Drug
The aim of this study was to investigate the PMA content in commercial Chlorella and Spirulina food supplements originating from cultivations in North America, Asia and Europe as well as to evaluate the toxicity of isolated lipophilic fractions using a zebrafish Danio rerio experimental model
Summary
There is increasing interest in microalgal food supplements and other microalgae-based foodstuffs. The majority of these are based on Chlorella sp. (sold under the commercial name of “spirulina”), with the greatest production in Asia, in China [1]. As evidenced, these products can be a source of proteins, vitamins and selected macro- and microelements, iron [2,3,4]. The consumption of food supplements based on Chlorella or Arthrospira biomass has not been associated with health risks, and both are considered safe and are approved by food regulatory bodies such as the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) or the Food and Drug. The observed adverse effects mostly included mild gastrointestinal events such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal cramps or vomiting [11,12]
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