Abstract
The Dutch cities Utrecht and Wijk bij Duurstede were founded by the Romans around 50 B.C. and the village Fijnaart and Graft-De Rijp around 1600 A.D. The soils of these villages are polluted with Pb (up to ~5000 mg/kg). Lead isotope ratios were used to trace the sources of Pb pollution in the urban soils. In ~75% of the urban soils the source of the Pb pollution was a mixture of glazed potsherd, sherds of glazed roof tiles, building remnants (Pb sheets), metal slag, Pb-based paint flakes and coal ashes. These anthropogenic Pb sources most likely entered the urban soils due to historical smelting activities, renovation and demolition of houses, disposal of coal ashes and raising and fertilization of land with city waste. Since many houses still contain Pb-based building materials, careless renovation or demolition can cause new or more extensive Pb pollution in urban soils. In ~25% of the studied urban topsoils, Pb isotope compositions suggest Pb pollution was caused by incinerator ash and/or gasoline Pb suggesting atmospheric deposition as the major source. The bioaccessible Pb fraction of 14 selected urban soils was determined with an in vitro test and varied from 16% to 82% of total Pb. The bioaccessibility appears related to the chemical composition and grain size of the primary Pb phases and pollution age. Risk assessment based on the in vitro test results imply that risk to children may be underestimated in ~90% of the studied sample sites (13 out of 14).
Highlights
Pollution of soils with heavy metals, including lead (Pb), started with the domestication of fire [1].The remnants of burnt firewood are rich in heavy metals and alter the metal content of the topsoil near the fireplace
Al content and the calculated Pb and Pb isotope composition of the anthropogenic Pb fraction of all soil samples categorized per city/village (Utrecht, Wijk bij Duurstede, Fijnaart and Graft-De Rijp) for each time period (Roman, Medieval, Modern)
Anthropogenic Pb content and isotopic composition were determined on urban soils with a long habitation history
Summary
Pollution of soils with heavy metals, including lead (Pb), started with the domestication of fire [1].The remnants of burnt firewood are rich in heavy metals and alter the metal content of the topsoil near the fireplace. Pollution of soils with heavy metals, including lead (Pb), started with the domestication of fire [1]. Walraven et al [14] demonstrated that with a combination of Pb isotope analysis, major and trace element analysis and fuzzy clustering, natural Pb in soils can be distinguished from anthropogenic Pb. In addition, three sources of Pb pollution in soils could be distinguished: (1) construction materials of old houses (building materials such as Pb sheets, glazed roof tiles and paint); (2) coal ashes and (3) alkyl-leaded petrol. In the present study we extended the research on Pb pollution due to domestic activities, from one village/city to four. The habitation history of the newly investigated cities/villages is longer: from 57 BC to 2003 A.D. instead of 1612 A.D. to 1997 A.D. With a greater number of soil
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Free) 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a call
