Politics of Archaeology in the Late Ottoman Empire: The Case of a British Aristocrat

Abstract

Politics of Archaeology in the Late Ottoman Empire:The Case of a British Aristocrat Özge Aslanmirza (bio) KEYWORDS Mark Sykes, archaeology, Britain, Ottoman Empire, Middle East Mark Sykes was an eminent British diplomat and agent, known today largely for the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), which led to the partition of the post-Ottoman Middle East. Indeed, he was an active figure in the creation of the Mandate regimes in the region after the end of the First World War. He was also known as a member of Parliament and specialist on the Middle East due to his frequent travels, although he was a lay scholar. He had attended diverse schools, both in Britain and abroad, and he had dropped out of Cambridge University. Nevertheless, he was passionate and curious about history, politics, archaeology, geography, and linguistics. His aristocratic background provided him with numerous opportunities, including travelling and conducting amateur research in the Middle East. By combining his diverse abilities, political connections and immense interest in the Middle East, he would become one of the most influential figures in British politics and foreign policy. This article will explore Mark Sykes' use of archaeology as a political tool, based on archival sources; namely, The Papers of Mark Sykes, a collection currently held at Hull University. I made use of the microfilm versions of these documents from the Turkish Historical Foundation. Alongside this, I benefited from the archival sources at the Hull History Centre, and the Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi). Sykes was the son of a "world wanderer" and trader, who was himself particularly fascinated by the Middle East. In his youth, he had read popular Orientalist books, such as Richard Burton's translation of the Arabian Nights,1 as well as travelled with his father, Tatton Sykes, to the Middle East; later, he would be fascinated by his Cambridge professors' knowledge of antiquity. As [End Page 261] may be gleaned from Mark Sykes' writings, his father was familiar with the local people of the Middle East. For instance, in 1888, when he made his trip to Egypt, Sykes stated that he learned about the antiquities of the region from the Sirdar Lord Greenfell,2 who had close relations with the Sykes family. In the biography of Mark Sykes written by his grandson, Christopher Simon Sykes, he conveys that during Mark Sykes' journeys in the Levant, "he befriended the sheiks of different tribes, who told him of the local sights, kept him fed and watered, and more importantly gave him their protection."3 A year later, when he went to Jerusalem, Sykes related that "one of the old Sheikh Fellah recognized me and shouted to the crowd that I was his son."4 This example indicates the close relationship between Sykes and the locals. Although the travel notes of Tatton Sykes have not survived to the present day, it is likely that Mark Sykes' father was engaged in intelligence gathering activities, which would influence the later career of his son. Like his father, Mark Sykes was able to travel safely in different regions throughout the Middle East. He worked for a long time with an experienced dragoman, named İsa Kıbrıslı, who knew the region well. Kıbrıslı was an experienced guide, who had previously been employed by "Lord Chelmsford in the Abyssinian campaign and accompanied Sir Charles Wilson to Mount Sinai."5 The journey which is the subject of this paper took place when he was nineteen years old, in 1898. This was also the time when small scale explorations were transforming into more systematic and larger-scaled ones.6 Thus, the case of Sykes fits into the zeitgeist of the era, particularly considering his further investment in politics began with his journeys to the Middle East for the purposes of knowledge gathering. The original notes kept during the journey, as well as his related sketches, are among the Papers of Mark Sykes catalogued under the title of 'Journey from Jericho to Damascus.' His notes and observations were originally published as an article in the 1899 issue of Palestine Exploration Quarterly, the journal of Palestine Exploration Fund.7 The PEF is important in the...