Abstract
In the mid-19th century, police offi cers in New York and Boston relied on less-lethal weapons, mostly wooden clubs. By the late 1800s, police departments began issuing firearms to officers in response to better-armed criminals. Today, many law enforcement agencies are again stressing the use of less-lethal weap ons, but they are using devices that are decidedly more high-tech than their 19th-century counterparts.
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