Poisoned Wells: Accusations, Persecution, and Minorities in Medieval Europe, 1321–1422 by Tzafrir Barzilay

Abstract

Reviewed by: Poisoned Wells: Accusations, Persecution, and Minorities in Medieval Europe, 1321–1422 by Tzafrir Barzilay Arina Zaytseva tzafrir barzilay. Poisoned Wells: Accusations, Persecution, and Minorities in Medieval Europe, 1321–1422. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2022. Pp. 303. As its title implies, Tzafrir Barzilay's Poisoned Wells is focused on the peculiar phenomenon of well-poisoning accusations which took hold in the minds of fourteenth-century Europeans and, in some cases, led to devastating consequences. Barzilay pays particular attention to the infamous events of the year 1321 when entire communities of lepers in southern France and the kingdom of Aragon were accused of plotting to poison wells in order to destroy Christendom. Another time period that falls under scrutiny is 1348–1350, which saw a great outbreak of violence against Jewish communities in various regions of Europe. Throughout the years scholars held varied views on these historical periods, and Barzilay aims to clarify the discussion. In particular, he looks closely at the process of "the transfer of accusations" from one minority group to another. His analysis is holistic, as he considers "the violence against all minorities" which allows him to better recreate the social, political, and economic contexts of persecutions (72). His analysis is built on a great wealth of archival evidence—Barzilay addresses various legal, epistolary, and literary sources which mention the rumors of well-poisoning and subsequent persecutions. Barzilay opens his historical investigation with a brief account of the development of knowledge about poisons and poisoning in the Middle Ages. The idea of well-poisoning developed under the influence of three factors, [End Page 477] the first of which was rapid urbanization of the High Middle Ages. As people began to live closer to each other and establish workspaces in the cities, the threat of accidental—or deliberate—poisoning of public water sources grew ever higher. The High Middle Ages also saw a rise in individual poisoning cases, many of which were high-profile and politically motivated. The stories about the poisoning of nobles were hard to prove, but quite sensational and as such easy to weaponize in political affairs. The third factor was connected to the development of medical knowledge about various poisons, as well as the rise in numbers of medical treatises dedicated to poisons and poisoning. These texts "broadcast to contemporaries that it [poisoning] was a real medical danger" (17). Barzilay is careful not to single out any of these factors as the sole reason for the creation and spread of well-poisoning rumors. Rather these factors prepared grounds for later well-poisoning accusations. The image of evil outsiders guilty of poisoning wells did not appear overnight either. Prior to the rise of well-poisoning accusations, Jews, especially Jewish doctors, and lepers were regarded with suspicion by Christians. Already during the High Middle Ages, Christians expressed prejudices against Jewish doctors and some codices of laws explicitly prohibited Christians from accepting services from Jewish medics. Moreover, some Jewish doctors were explicitly linked to or suspected of poisoning Christian nobles. Lepers were also often treated with suspicion, as their disease was associated with sin. However, lepers enjoyed a somewhat secure status during the Middle Ages, and their demise in 1321 was brought about by unique "political and social circumstances" of the times (27). Additionally, heretics and Muslims were other minorities who were regarded with hostility, which later contributed to them being accused of poisoning. Lepers were the first minority to suffer major persecutions triggered by well-poisoning accusations. During 1321–1322, many lepers were tried and executed in southern France and Aragon. The powerful rumor had it that the lepers, jealous of healthy and prospering Christians, conspired to poison water sources to bring down the reign of Christianity. At times the narrative included Jews or Muslims who commissioned the lepers to poison public wells. Barzilay determines that the well-poisoning rumors were not the main reason for gruesome persecutions—rather it was the change in the social and political standing of lepers in the late thirteenth century. Previously lepers could lead autonomous lives in leprosaria, while in the late thirteenth century public management took control over these communities (57). Local municipal authorities became increasingly apprehensive of...