Plastic pollution and infectious diseases

Abstract

The versatility and resistance of plastic allowed for its massive use during the second half of the 20th century. Plastic is hardly degradable and—because waste management is often inefficient—around 55% ends up either in landfill or in nature. Plastic mismanagement thus durably pollutes the environment. Although several studies have pointed out the effect of microplastic and nanoplastic pollution on global health, few have focused on the effect of macroplastics on the proliferation and propagation of infectious diseases and thus on human and livestock health. Plastic debris that holds water can encourage arthropod-borne disease by providing a habitat for some vectors' immature stages and shelter to anthropophilic and medically important species, potentially increasing local vector populations with implications for disease burden. Similarly, by acting as a stagnant water reservoir, waste plastic promotes the development of pathogenic bacteria (such as leptospirosis) and harmful algae. These microorganisms can produce biofilms, coating plastic fragments that can then colonise new water bodies. These concerns point to the need for a transdisciplinary approach to understand and potentially prevent plastic debris from influencing local vector-borne and waterborne diseases.Plastic, considered a miracle product of the 20th century, has become the curse of the 21st century. Its large-scale production only dates back to the 1950s.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar Its annual production exponentially increased from 2 million metric tons (Mt) in 1950 to 381 Mt in 2015.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar The versatility and resistance offered by this synthetic material made it highly attractive for many applications such as in the food sector, where single-use plastic helps to reduce food waste generation by improving food safety and shelf life of the products.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar This low-cost and effective product allowed for a globalised economy, in which fabrication happens further and further away from the consumer, facilitated by more and more wrapping and packing materials.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar As a consequence, the packaging sector is the largest producer of plastic waste, accounting for nearly half of plastic waste generation.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar In 2015, of the 302 Mt of plastic waste generated, 141 Mt were solely attributed to this sector. The plastic waste generated is often of single use, and is characterised by a short use lifetime, usually less than 6 months.4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar In 2015, 20% of global plastic waste was recycled, 25% was incinerated, and 55% was either put into landfills or discarded in nature.1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google ScholarMismanagement of plastic waste is generally most evident in middle-income countries, especially in tropical areas (with the addition of China). These countries have usually faced a rapid development and many import large volumes of plastic waste from high-income countries; however, their waste management systems are not able to cope with these large volumes of plastic.3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, 4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar, 5UN Environment ProgrammeSingle-use plastics, a roadmap for sustainability.https://www.unep.org/resources/report/single-use-plastics-roadmap-sustainabilityDate: 2018Date accessed: September 3, 2021Google Scholar If current production and plastic waste management practices continue, about 12 000 Mt of plastic waste will end up in landfills or in the natural environment by 2050.2Geyer R Jambeck JR Law KL Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made.Sci Adv. 2017; 3e1700782Google Scholar, 6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google ScholarGlobal plastic waste mismanagement is causing a serious predicament as it interacts with wildlife in several ways.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 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4100142Google Scholar The ever-growing problem of microplastics and the marine environment is well documented.6Chen HL Nath TK Chong S Foo V Gibbins C Lechner AM The plastic waste problem in Malaysia: management, recycling and disposal of local and global plastic waste.SN Appl Sci. 2021; 3: 437Google Scholar, 10Li L Zuo J Duan X Wang S Hu K Chang R Impacts and mitigation measures of plastic waste: a critical review.Environ Impact Assess Rev. 2021; 90106642Google Scholar Many studies focus on microplastic and nanoplastic's effects as endocrine disruptors,1Evode N Qamar SA Bilal M Barceló D Iqbal HMN Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability.Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2021; 4100142Google Scholar, 3Zhao X Korey M Li K et al.Plastic waste upcycling toward a circular economy.Chem Eng J. 2022; 428131928Google Scholar, 11Cole M Lindeque P Fileman E Halsband C Galloway TS The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus.Environ Sci Technol. 2015; 49: 1130-1137Google Scholar or in a broader sense their influence on both human and wildlife health.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar, 11Cole M Lindeque P Fileman E Halsband C Galloway TS The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus.Environ Sci Technol. 2015; 49: 1130-1137Google Scholar For example, microplastics were found ontogenically transferred from the larvae to the adult mosquito12Al-Jaibachi R Cuthbert RN Callaghan A Up and away: ontogenic transference as a pathway for aerial dispersal of microplastics.Biol Lett. 2018; 1420180479Google Scholar and fragments could be transmitted through the bite of a female mosquito.13Gopinath PM Darekar AS Kanimozhi S Mukherjee A Chandrasekaran N Female mosquito-a potential vector for transporting plastic residues to humans.Chemosphere. 2022; 301134666Google Scholar The most noticeable and reported consequences of plastic pollution are the great Pacific garbage patch, and casualties amongst turtles and large mammals after plastic entanglement or ingestion.7Brach L Deixonne P Bernard MF et al.Anticyclonic eddies increase accumulation of microplastic in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.Mar Pollut Bull. 2018; 126: 191-196Google Scholar Most research articles focus on the effect of plastic debris in marine or aquatic environments.8Law KL Plastics in the marine environment.Annu Rev Mar Sci. 2017; 9: 205-229Google Scholar, 9Rochman CM Strategies for reducing ocean plastic debris should be diverse and guided by science.Environ Res Lett. 2016; 11041001Google Scholar Surprisingly, there are few studies on macroplastics and their effects in terrestrial environments. In this article, we emphasise the potential role of plastic pollution on infectious disease risk. 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By lacking suitable plastic waste management systems, many middle-income countries might have controlled one disease, but could have put their poorest populations at risk with another major sanitary problem in the form of arthropod-borne or waterborne diseases. Globally, plastics lack a circular economy4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean.Science. 2015; 347: 768-771Google Scholar that would encourage a more responsible and sustainable management.4Jambeck JR Geyer R Wilcox C et al.Marine pollution. 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This lack of knowledge and understanding is due to the absence of dedicated transdisciplinary and transboundary