Plant Diversity Hotspots in the Atlantic Coastal Forests of Brazil

The purpose of this paper was to analyze the diversity patterns of Cactaceae at a global scale, to identify those countries where conservation actions should be performed. In order to do this, the species richness and the number of endemic species for 34 American countries were determined. With these data, the relationship between the total number of species or the number of endemic species and the area of the countries were analyzed. In addition, a complementarity analysis was conducted to determine the most important countries for cactus conservation. Results showed that Mexico had the highest number of total and endemic species followed by Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru, among others. There was a significant positive relationship between both, the total and endemic species, and the area of the countries. Despite this fact, the cactus diversity in Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Costa Rica was higher than expected according to their area. Further, these countries also presented the highest proportions of endemic species. The complementarity analysis indicated that 24 countries are necessary to preserve all cactus species. However, 94% of all species could be preserved with only 10 countries. Considering the diversity patterns and the complementarity analysis, three important groups for cactus conservation were identified: (1) Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Costa Rica, (2) Paraguay and Cuba, and (3) Brazil and USA. Conservation efforts should be focused on these countries in order to preserve cactus diversity.

AimThe aim of this study was to test some of the classical rules of island biogeography for the carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in 15 forest patches during 1995–99.LocationThe 15 forest patches studied are located on the Bereg Plain. The Bereg Plain is at the foot of the Carpathians, partly in Hungary and partly in the Ukraine. Even in recent times, the area was covered by continuous woodland of deciduous trees, and the species of the closed canopy deciduous forest of the hills and mountains were able to disperse from the Carpathians to these lowland forests. But now, because of agricultural activities and forest management, this woodland is fragmented into forest patches.MethodsThe species–area and the number of species–distance to mainland relationships, and the influence of other factors like shape, isolation, and altitude above the see level, on the number of species were studied. We have used three categories of species during the analyses: (i) total number of species; (ii) the number of species of the closed canopy deciduous forest of the hills and mountains (ForHim species); and (iii) the number of widely distributed generalist species (WidGe species).ResultsThere were positive, but statistically insignificant correlations between the distance to the Carpathians and the total number of species, and also between the distance to the Carpathians and the number of WidGe species. The correlation was negative for the number of ForHim species, and it was also not significant. There were significant negative correlation between both the total number of species and the number of WidGe species and the size of the forest patches, while there were significant positive correlation between the size of forest patch and the number of ForHim species. The number of ForHim species decreased significantly by the increase of isolation, while the number of WidGe species increased by the isolation. Shape of the forest patches, and their altitude above the sea level had no influence on the total species richness, the ForHim species richness, and the WidGe species richness. We have also proved that each of the total species richness, the ForHim species richness, and the WidGe species richness, is higher for many small forest patches than for one large patch of the same total area.Main conclusionsOur results suggest that historical reasons have a vital influence on the present species patterns. Moreover, in biogeographical studies we must distinguish between species which recognize the habitat as a patch or island and those that can survive in the neighbouring habitats as well. An ignorance of these two categories may disguise basic biogeographic rules.

The identification of areas of high priority for conservation is becoming a major endeavor for conservation biologists. Regions of high species richness and high concentrations of endemic and endangered species have been considered a priority for conservation. In this paper we use information about the species richness, composition, and distribution of mammals from Mexico for selecting priority areas for conservation. All species of terrestrial mammals were characterized by geographic range size, body mass, and conservation status, and their distributions were overlaid on a 2° × 2° grid to detect areas of high concentrations of species richness, endemicity, and endangered species. We focused our analyses at both species and biogeographic levels. At the species level we examined differences among endangered, endemic, and non-endemic species in ecological characteristics correlated with vulnerability to extinction. There were significant differences between endangered and non-endangered species, and between endemic and non-endemic mammals in body size and geographic range size. At the biogeographic level simple correlation analyses were carried out to determine the relation between latitude, total species richness, number of endemic species, and number of endangered species. We found a very low correspondence among areas of high diversity, high endemicity, or high number of endangered species. The distribution of many species with restricted geographic ranges, including endemic and non-endemic species, did not coincide with areas of high species richness, endemicity, or endangerment. We suggest a conservation strategy that gives priority to areas of high concentration of endangered species and of non-endangered species with restricted distributions. Among endangered species a higher priority should be given to endemic taxa vs. non-endemic species, and to restricted species over widespread taxa in these two groups.

135 infrageneric taxa of epiphytic lichen were found in 20 stands of tree-line forests of the Central-Eastern Italian Alps. Three forest types were considered: (1) late successional stands with several large trees, (2) pioneer stands on abandoned pastures without large trees, and (3) open and grazed stands. They were compared on the basis of four main criteria: (1) species richness, (2) number of rare species, (3) number of species that are exclusive to the subalpine belt in Italy, and (4) number of species that are exclusive to the Alps in Italy. Species richness is higher in the late successional stands, which also host a higher share of rare and exclusive species. The total number of rare species per site is correlated with the total number of species, as well as with the number of common species, and with the total number of macrolichens. Rare macrolichens are correlated with common macrolichens. Two main groups of target species with decreasing conservation priority are identified. Letharia vulpina is suggested as signal species for sites worthy of conservation. The guild of macrolichens may be used as an indicator of both species richness and of the occurrence of rare species.

Some odd (and even) relationships in food webs

The most extensive biomes of tropical South America, in particular the Amazonian Forest, are the richest in total number of bird species and number of endemic species. On the other hand, relative diversity of species and endemic species (number of species per 10,000 km2 of biome) is highest in areally restricted and/or isolated biomes like the Pacific Colombian‐Ecuadorian Forest, the Andean Montane Forest and the Pantepui Montane Forest. Local species richness is highest in Amazonia, especially in upper Amazonia where 400 to 430 forest bird species (over 500 species, if water‐birds and migrants are included) occur at individual localities. Very high species richness characterizes also the avifaunas of the forests which extend, from upper Amazonia, far eastward in the hilly country both to the north and to the south of the central Amazon Valley. By contrast, local species diversity is considerably reduced in central Amazonia. The avifaunas at individual Amazonian localities are five to six times richer in species than north Temperate Zone avifaunas. “Excess” tropical species richness is explained by several factors, viz. tighter species packing, additional tropical guilds and increased size ranges of tropical guilds. Interspecific competition has a prominent role in determining the range limits of numerous parapatric bird species in the lowlands as well as along the slopes of the Andes. The total number of forest bird species at individual sites decreases with elevation in the Andes closely paralleling a similar trend of decreasing forest stature. During Cenozoic time (Tertiary‐Quaternary), tropical and high latitude avifaunas have been affected by similar vicariance processes (which probably caused extensive faunal diversification), viz. paleogeographic changes in the distribution of land and flooded areas, separation by broad rivers, and climatic‐vegetational fluctuations (leading to the isolation of restricted populations in temporal ecological refugia).

ABSTRACTFreshwater finfish species richness and level of endemism in East, and South and South‐East Asia that included 17 nations were studied using available databases, and included nation‐wise distribution, habitat types, and conservation status. The number of endemic finfish species in the region was 559, belonging to 47 families. Families Cyprinidae and Balitoridae accounted for 43.5% and 16.2% of the total number of endemic species in the region, respectively, followed by Sisoridae (25), Gobiidae (20), Melanotaeniidae (19), and Bagridae (16), and the other 41 families had at least one endemic species. Nation‐wise the most number of endemic freshwater finfish species occur in India (191), followed by China (88), Indonesia (84), and Myanmar (60). In India, the endemic species accounted for 26.4% of the native freshwater fish fauna, followed by South Korea (16.9%), the Philippines, (16.3%) and Myanmar (15.7%).Statistically significant relationships discerned between the number of indigenous and endemic species richness to land area (Xla in 103 km2) of the nations in the region were, Yin = 218.961 Ln(Xla) – 843.1 (R2 = 0.735; P < 0.001) and Ye = 28.445 Ln Xla−134.47 (R2 = 0.534; P < 0.01), respectively, and between indigenous and endemic species richness was Ye = 0.079Xn− 1.558 (R2 = 0.235; P < 0.05).The overall conservation status of endemic finfish in Asia was satisfactory in that only 92 species were in some state of vulnerability, of which 37 species (6.6%) are endangered or critically endangered. However, the bulk of these species (83.7%) were cave‐ and or lake‐dwelling fish. However, nation‐wise, the endemic freshwater finfish fauna of the Philippines and Sri Lanka, based on the imperilment index, were found to be in a highly vulnerable state. Among river basins, the Mekong Basin had the highest number of endemic species (31.3%). The discrepancies between databases are highlighted and the need to consolidate information among databases is discussed. It is suggested that the Mekong Basin be considered as a biodiversity hotspot, and appropriate management strategies be introduced in this regard.

Taxonomic uncertainty and the challenge of estimating global species richness

Urban growth is a major threat to biodiversity conservation at the global scale. Its impacts are expected to be especially detrimental when it sprawls into the landscape and reaches sites of high conservation value due to the species and ecosystems they host, such as protected areas. I analyzed the degree of urbanization (i.e., urban cover and growth rate) from 2006 to 2015 in protected sites in the Natura 2000 network, which, according to the Habitats and Birds Directives, harbor species and habitats of high conservation concern in Europe. I used data on the degree of land imperviousness from COPERNICUS to calculate and compare urban covers and growth rates inside and outside Natura 2000. I also analyzed the relationships of urban cover and growth rates with a set of characteristics of Natura sites. Urban cover inside Natura 2000 was 10 times lower than outside (0.4% vs. 4%) throughout the European Union. However, the rates of urban growth were slightly higher inside than outside Natura 2000 (4.8% vs. 3.9%), which indicates an incipient urban sprawl inside the network. In general, Natura sites affected most by urbanization were those surrounded by densely populated areas (i.e., urban clusters) that had a low number of species or habitats of conservation concern, albeit some member states had high urban cover or growth rate or both in protected sites with a large number of species or habitats of high conservation value. Small Natura sites had more urban cover than large sites, but urban growth rates were highest in large Natura sites. Natura 2000 is protected against urbanization to some extent, but there is room for improvement. Member states must enact stricter legal protection and control law enforcement to halt urban sprawl into protected areas under the greatest pressure from urban sprawl (i.e., close to urban clusters). Such actions are particularly needed in Natura sites with high urban cover and growth rates and areas where urbanization is affecting small Natura sites of high conservation value, which are especially vulnerable and concentrated in the Mediterranean region.

To advance our limited knowledge of global mosquito biogeography, we analyzed country occurrence records from the Systematic Catalog of the Culicidae (http://www.mosquitocatalog. org/main.asp), and we present world maps of species richness and endemism. A latitudinal biodiversity gradient was observed, with species richness increasing toward the equator. A linear log-log species (y)-area (x) relationship (SAR) was found that we used to compare observed and expected species densities for each country. Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand had the highest numbers of species, and Brazil also had the highest taxonomic output and number of type locations. Brazil, Australia, the Philippines, and Indonesia had the highest numbers of endemic species, but excluding small island countries, Panama, French Guiana, Malaysia, and Costa Rica had the highest densities of total species and endemic species. Globally, 50% of mosquito species are endemic. Island countries had higher total number of species and higher number of endemic species than mainland countries of similar size, but the slope of the SAR was similar for island and mainland countries. Islands also had higher numbers of publications and type locations, possibly due to greater sampling effort and/or species endemism on islands. The taxonomic output was lowest for some countries in Africa and the Middle East. A consideration of country estimates of past sampling effort and species richness and endemism is proposed to guide mosquito biodiversity surveys. For species groups, we show that the number of species of Anopheles subgenus Anopheles varies with those of subgenus Cellia in a consistent manner between countries depending on the region. This pattern is discussed in relation to hypotheses about the historical biogeography and ecology of this medically important genus. Spatial analysis of country species records offers new insight into global patterns of mosquito biodiversity and survey history.

The spatial distribution of freshwater fish species (Total species and Unique species) in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River was studied, focusing on the spatial distribution of geographic ranges. Two biogeographical indices: environmental resistance (R50), anisotropy (A50) and a fractal dimension method were used to identify the relationship between them and spatial distribution of freshwater fish. R50 quantifies the loss of biotic resemblance occurring from any point in the map to the rest of the study area. A50 quantifies the extent to which the perimeter: area ratio of the geographical ranges of all species whose distributions overlap at any particular location depart from the perimeter of area ratio of a circle. We concluded that the western of the study area is populated by a large number of total and unique species, the eastern part with the total species richness, the middle regions populated by small number of unique species, the mid-west region populated by small number of total species, and the mid-eastern region populated by a large number of total species. We also analyzed how topology affects the spatial arrangement of species, species density has strong curvilinear correlation (species density increases with increased of fractal dimension), the species density in the tributaries is lower than that in mainstream. The results and methods used give us detailed information about the spatial distribution of species, so as to illuminate the species distribution and change by the human activities.

Mono- and bispecific genera are noteworthy compared with multispecies genera because they either may be evolutionarily older or would represent not-yet-diversified young lineages, and being in some cases endemic to specific islands and archipelagoes, they also are of conservation concern. Here, the distribution patterns of the mono- and bispecific genera of freshwater turtles and tortoises and the distribution patterns of island endemics are analyzed, using a database provided by the International Union for Conservation of Nature/Species Survival Commission Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. The mean number of species per genus varied significantly across biogeographic regions. Twenty-eight genera are monospecific, and 18 are bispecific, accounting for 48.9% of the total genera of tortoises and freshwater turtles worldwide. The Oriental region housed the highest fraction of these genera, followed by the Neotropical and Afrotropical regions. More than 11% of the total number of chelonian species (n = 356) were island endemics, with most species being Neotropical. The majority of the endemic island species occurred in the Galapagos Islands and in Papua New Guinea. The endemism index varied remarkably among the various islands/archipelagoes, with the Philippines being the center of endemism with the minor value of the index and the Galapagos being that with the highest value of the index. Island size was correlated neither with the number of endemic species per island nor with the endemism index of each island, but it was significantly correlated with the total number of species (once the Galapagos were removed from analyses as an outlier). Species belonging to mono- and bispecific genera, as well as island endemic species, were more threatened (as a percentage; in all cases > 65%) than the overall percentage of threatened taxa in freshwater turtles and tortoises worldwide (50.3%).

Weed species diversity and community composition in organic and conventional cropping of spring cereals

To assess the conservation status of the world’s land mammals, we compiled data on the number of total species, endemic species, recently extinct species, and currently endangered species for 155 countries. Total species richness was significantly correlated with territorial land area, whereas number of endemic species was only weakly correlated with both area and total number of species. The large amount of variation left unexplained by species‐area regressions reflects the influence of other factors, such as latitude, topographic and habitat heterogeneity, and historical biogeography, on species richness and especially on patterns of endemism. Countries of particular conservation concern, because they have rich mammalian faunas containing many endemic species, are the large islands of Australia, Madagascar, Indonesia, and the Philippines, as well as continental Mexico. Patterns of recent extinctions and the current endangered status of species were difficult to interpret, largely because of inadequate and inconsistent data. The majority of officially listed endangered species are large, well known, and popular mammals, such as primates, ungulates, and carnivores, whereas the majority of species known to have gone recently extinct and likely to be currently threatened are small and inconspicuous, such as rodents and bats. Our work not only illustrates the role of ecological, evolutionary, and biogeographic processes in the origin and maintenance of land mammal diversity, it also presents the information at the level of biogeographic regions and political units where management and policy must be applied in order to slow the loss of this diversity.

The species–area relationship was used to test the effects of habitat reduction on the proportion of tetrapod species that would be considered threatened with extinction, assuming the current estimate of 19% of remaining forest coverage in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Here, species–area estimates from deforestation were compared with a Red List produced by experts. Analyses were performed with: (1) the total pool of species that occur in Rio de Janeiro State (159 amphibians, 115 reptiles, 635 birds and 157 mammals); (2) the pool of species endemic to the Atlantic forest (109 amphibians, 46 reptiles, 149 birds and 35 mammals). The sensitivity of the analyses to variations in the Z parameter of the species–area relationship was evaluated. In general, the species–area overestimated the total number of species threatened with extinction for all tetrapods, while the estimate of endemic mammals predicted to be extinct was close to the number of endemic species listed as threatened with extinction. Furthermore, changes in the Z-values did not affect those results. The species–area relationship accurately predicted the number of endemic birds assumed to be extinct since it used values of Z smaller than 0.25. The analyses with endemic species of reptiles and amphibians of Atlantic forest overestimated the number of species predicted to be extinct for both groups. In conclusion, at the considered scale, mammals and birds endemic to the Atlantic forest seem to be more affected by deforestation than reptiles and amphibians.