Abstract
Background: Drinking plain water, such as tap or bottled water, provides hydration and satiety without adding calories. We examined plain water and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption in relation to energy and nutrient intake at full-service restaurants. Methods: Data came from the 2005–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, comprising a nationally-representative sample of 2900 adults who reported full-service restaurant consumption in 24-h dietary recalls. Linear regressions were performed to examine the differences in daily energy and nutrient intake at full-service restaurants by plain water and SSB consumption status, adjusting for individual characteristics and sampling design. Results: Over 18% of U.S. adults had full-service restaurant consumption on any given day. Among full-service restaurant consumers, 16.7% consumed SSBs, 2.6% consumed plain water but no SSBs, and the remaining 80.7% consumed neither beverage at the restaurant. Compared to onsite SSB consumption, plain water but no SSB consumption was associated with reduced daily total energy intake at full-service restaurants by 443.4 kcal, added sugar intake by 58.2 g, saturated fat intake by 4.4 g, and sodium intake by 616.8 mg, respectively. Conclusion: Replacing SSBs with plain water consumption could be an effective strategy to balance energy/nutrient intake and prevent overconsumption at full-service restaurant setting.
Highlights
Eating out has become an essential part of the American diet [1,2]
Compared to onsite sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption, plain water but no SSB consumption was associated with reduced daily total energy intake at full-service restaurants by 443.4 kcal, added sugar intake by 58.2 g, saturated fat intake by 4.4 g, and sodium intake by 616.8 mg, respectively
A smaller proportion of SSB consumers were at the lowest income level (IPR < 130%) but a larger proportion at the middle income level (130% ď Income to poverty ratio (IPR) < 300%) compared to plain water consumers, whereas the prevalence of the highest income level (IPR ě 130%) remained similar between these two groups
Summary
Eating out has become an essential part of the American diet [1,2]. A long line of existing studies have documented fast-food restaurant consumption in relation to increased energy intake and elevated risk of obesity in children and adults [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Given that approximately one fifth of U.S adults eat in a full-service restaurant on any given day [14], reducing energy intake and improving diet quality in full-service restaurant settings may profoundly impact Americans’ nutritional and health status. Plain water intake has been linked to reduced energy consumption and improved body weight management [18,19,20,21]. Drinking plain water, such as tap or bottled water, provides hydration and satiety without adding calories. Linear regressions were performed to examine the differences in daily energy and nutrient intake at full-service restaurants by plain water and SSB consumption status, adjusting for individual characteristics and sampling design.
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