Plaidoyer pour un classement des verbes français

472 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 76, NUMBER 2 (2000) members. Of particular interest are Vs biographical sketches of the circle's most important members —Vilém Mathesius, N. S. Trubetzkoy, Roman Takobson. Bohuslav Havránek, and Bohumil Trnka. As always, Vsjudgments are balanced, modest, and kind, even when they concern those who for political reasons chose at times to criticize some of the circle' s founders and their contributions to a 'functionally structural method' of linguistic research. [Zdenek Salzmann, Northern Arizona University.] Verbal periphrases in Romance: Aspect , actionality, and grammaticalization . By Mario Squartini. (Empirical approaches to language typology 21.) Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. Pp. xii, 370. Periphrastic temporal constructions in Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese are the primary focus of this book. By comparison to these three standard languages , temporal (including aspectuo-temporal) periphrases in French, Catalan, Galician, and Occitan, as well as Latin American varieties of Spanish (Mexican foremost) and Portuguese (Brazilian), receive modest attention. Reference is periodically made to Provençal, Judeo-Spanish, and Sardinian, not to mention a few Spanish and Italian dialects. RhaetoRomansch and Romanian barely receive any attention at all. The verbal periphrases of main concern to Squartini are those generally considered most salient (i.e. language-specific) in several of the contemporary Romance languages: progressive, durative, and/or iterative temporal constructions in Spanish and Italian, the perfect tense in Portuguese. These include Spanish estarlirlandarlvenirlllevar + gerund, Italian stare/andare/venire + gerund, and Portuguese ter + past participle (particularly to the extent that the temporal semantics ofthe Portuguese périphrase differ from those of Spanish haber or tener + past participle); for contrastive purposes, the French progressive periphrases être en train de/être (après) à + infinitive and the French passé surcomposé are briefly reviewed as well. Analytic future-tense forms (e.g. Spanish ira + infinitive, French aller + infinitive ) are thus mentioned only in passing (30), while the Romanian future tense—encoded by no fewer than four different periphrases whose auxiliaries are either reflexes orlater phonological reductions ofthe Latin etyma vâdo 'go', habeO 'have', and volo 'want'—is ignored entirely. Throughout his book, S considers the interplay between aspect and actionality—in other words, the interaction between grammatical aspect (to the extent that it is encoded by the temporal morphology of the Romance languages) and lexical aspect (or 'aspectuality'). The latter is represented by the classification of verbs as verbs of state, activity, accomplishment , or achievement, but it includes such properties as durativity and iterativity as well. S views morphosyntactic constraints on the instantiation of various verbal periphrases as evidence of the degree and course of their grammaticalization. In the second of five chapters (35-70), for example , S considers the aspectuo-temporal semantics of the Spanish perfective progressive, a periphrastic tense ofthe type estuvo hablando 'he/she was speaking '. The périphrase is ofinterest because, according to S, it combines two opposing aspectual values: The Spanishpreterite,representedby the auxiliary estuvo, is aspectually perfective, while the gerund hablando is an aspectually imperfective verb form. S considers the opposition between the Spanish preterite (estuvo) and imperfect (estaba) tenses to be an aspectual one, comparable to the aspectual opposition that exists between Bulgarian aorist- and imperfect-tense forms. Bulgarian exhibits notonly perfective but also imperfective aorists (e.g. izpja vspja 'he/she sang') which, in a sense, combine both imperfective and perfective morphology. S therefore believes that the Spanish perfective progressive is more or less functionally equivalent to the Bulgarian imperfective aorist, a verb form that, simply put, denotes a single completion or conclusion of a continuous action (state or activity). The book is written in English; despite an occasional lack of idiomaticity or grammaticality, it is easy to read. All textual examples from Romance languages (by my count, 913, excluding those in the endnotes) are provided with English glosses, which are sometimes too literal. S has translated almost all progressive periphrases into English as mere progressive -tense forms; however, many of these (particularly the Spanish in Ch. 5) would have been better translated as English periphrases of the type keep + presentparticiple andgo on + presentparticiple (e.g. he kept talking, he went on talking, etc.). Ultimately, it is likely that S's work will be appreciated more for the abundance of...

This article, devoted to the analysis of parts of speech in the works of Makhmud Zamakhshari, addresses the question of conjugation of verbs in the last chapter named “Tasrifu-l-af’al” of the book “Mukaddamatu-l-adab”. The article emphasizes that the verb is an important part of speech in Arabic, that it is impossible to master the grammatical rules and categories without knowing its morphological features, that some parts of speech, especially masdars, the degrees of adjectives are formed from verbal roots. In “Mukaddamatu-l-Adab” was written that verbs in Arabic are divided into verbs with three and four roots and the majority are the verbs with three roots. Verbs with four roots, as well as verbs with three roots, lean with the help of those suffixes and prefixes. In the formation of the present tense forms, imperative forms, masdars, participles are also based on the same rules as for three-verbs. Makhmud Zamakhshari, defining the doubled verbs as verbs in the three-root group, in which the second and third roots consist of the same letter, emphasizes that the hamza is a “healthy” letter, not defective, and because of its complex pronunciation it is either changed with another letter or sometimes it is missed when pronounced and this provides ease of pronunciation. The question of writing hamza and its spelling has always been a difficult question of the language. Since Zamakhshari created his work for the quick study of Arabic and its grammar by non-Arab people, he did not go deeply into the essence of some difficult questions of Arabic language. The scientist notices that ings are added to the verbs of the actual voice gives samples conjugation of regular verbs in the past tense, and says that all regular verbs and verbs that are similar to regular verbs are conjugated in the above order. In his work, Zamahshari gave a sample of the conjugations of the verbs of the passive voice and examples of adding personal endings to such verbs, as well as conjugations of regular verbs, and verbs similar to regular verbs, empty and defective verbs. The scholar’s work not only gave conjugation of verbs, but also provided exceptions to the rules, it also highlighted a separate chapter in the interpretation of the imperative form in Arabic. The work contains information that the formation of an imperative form from verbs of the present-future tense. The article emphasizes that the verbs of surprise are formed only from the first chapter of the three-root verbs, that such forms are not formed from verbs expressing physical imperfection. Ways of expressing astonishment from doubled and defective verbs are commented. Regarding the verb conjugation, which is devoted to the chapter on the study of infinitives (masdar), the author dwells on the names of actions, ways of forming masdars from empty verbs, gives definition to real and passive participles, gives examples of their formation. This chapter provides information on the formation of real and passive participles from the derived chapters and four-root verbs, an interpretation of the adjective forms of the excellent and comparative degrees.

A grammar of Umbeyajts as spoken by the Ikojts people of San Dionisio del Mar, Oaxaca, Mexico

These so-called impersonal verbs share a number of syntactic and semantic properties. In this paper we will concentrate on the following interesting fact about these verbs (which to the best of my knowledge has been not previously noticed): IMPERSONAL VERBS IN RUSSIAN DO NOT FORM ACTIVE PARTICIPLES OR GERUNDS. Thus the paradigm of an impersonal verb like tosnit' does not include forms like *tonjalfiij, *tognivgij, *toinja, or *togniv. The discussion will center on the most appropriate way to incorporate facts like this into the grammar of Russian. One possible way is to treat the nonoccurrence of these forms as accidental gaps in the paradigm of these verbs and simply to enter this information in some convenient way in the lexical entry for the verb (e.g., as a feature). In other words we can treat the nonoccurrence of forms like *tonja.Sij etc. the same way that we must treat the nonoccurrence of forms like *pobeZu/*pobeidu (1sg. pres. of pobedit'), as phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, and semantically unmotivated gaps that must be listed in the lexicon.2 But by separately marking each impersonal verb as not having a gerund or active participle we miss a generalization: this fact seems to be a class property and should not have to be repeated for each member of the class. We can get around this problem by incorporating this fact into the grammar of Russian by means of a lexical redundancy rule which states that verbs that cannot occur with a subject lack gerund and active participle forms.3 But even this proposal seems to be based on the assumption that the two facts are unrelated and that there is no causal relationship between the absence of a subject NP and the lack of gerund and active participle forms. There is a large class of verbs in Russian which provides evidence that these defects in the paradigm of impersonal verbs are not accidental gaps

Word and Paradigm theories of inflection can be classified as inferential-realizational theories, according to the classification of Stump (2001), in that the associations between morphosyntactic properties and exponents of morphology are not listed in the lexicon, but are identified by rules which relate the inflected form with the root, and are selected by their morphosyntactic properties (inferential theories); and morphosyntactic properties are not added to the word by an exponent, but these properties select the exponents that realize them (realizational theories). It has been observed (cf. inter alia Maiden 1992; Pirrelli and Battista 2000) how alternations, on verbal stems that present allomorphy, meet a surprisingly regular distribution, which is not dictated by the phonological context. This regularity reflects the organization of the verbal paradigm, or the set of all inflected forms for each lexeme, into morphomes, purely formal entities independent from morphosyntactic features (Aronoff 1994). In the last twenty years, there has been much interest in studying the paradigmatic distribution of allomorphy, or the way in which variation between forms (the traditional “irregularity”) of a paradigm rests on regular patterns. Practically, these studies aim at analysing the paradigmatic structure of inflection, i.e. to decompose the paradigm into zones where forms are realized on possibly distinct basic stems, and to examine the formal relations (on the phonological level) between these basic stems, looking for predictability chains allowing to handle both regular and irregular lexemes. In the present work, we examine the formal relations between some verbal derivatives in Italian and the basic stems of the related verbs with the goal of extending the study of paradigmatic distribution to derivation. In Latin, verbal derivatives in tionem (event/ result), torem (agent/ instrument), tura (event/ result), tivus (relational adjective), torium (adjective/ instrument/ place) were built on the supine (basic) stem, like the past participle. Italian, as other Romance languages, has inherited from Latin both the process and the derived forms. Some derivatives, and in some cases the past participle itself, underwent semantic drift. Some (ancient) past participles are no longer connected to a verb and remain as independent adjectives (cf. solito ‘usual’). Some past participles of still existing verbs did the same (cf. viso ‘seen’ → ‘sight’ → ‘eyes’ → ‘face’ in modern Italian) while being replaced in their past participle function by analogic forms (visto/veduto ‘seen’). In these cases, derivatives do not display a transparent relation with the past participles of the base verbs. Yet, they maintain formal relations, and these relations allow identifying a basic stem, which is by default identical to the basic stem of the past participle, but can possibly be distinct. This basic stem can be related to other basic stems of the base verb. In particular, we study the relations between the basic stems of verbal derivatives and the basic stems of the related verb, along with a classification of these relations.

This study was to find out the errors experienced by students in composing passive voice sentences. It also explained the factors that caused students' barriers in constructing passive voice sentences. This study focused on students' errors and bariers in constructing passive voice sentences in the form of Simple Present Tense, Simple Past Tense, and Present Future Perfect Tense. The research approach used was a qualitative method through a case study. The subject of this research was 12 students in class XII of SMKS Yaspenmas Sei Lepan. Data collection techniques were tests and interviews. The findings of this study were the types of student errors on omission 62.4%, misinformation 10.6%, misordering 27%. As well as the location of the error in the passive voice sentence in the form of Simple Present Tense in the use of to be 75%, past participle 100%, then the use of to be in the Simple Past Tense 95, 83% and past participle 64.6%, then the use of have in Present Future Perfect Tense 36.1%, been 100%, and past participle 33.3%. These errors were due to internal factors and external factors. The internal factors were students’ lack of interest in learning English as well as lack of vocabulary mastery and lack of understanding of grammar. The external factors were lack of parental attention, lack of supporting media in the learning process, inadequate school infrastructures, and the road to school was difficult to pass.

It is claimed that in languages without a synthetic passive verbal morphology, the passive diathesis is compositional derived by implication or radical underspecification rather than generated in a direct way. As finitizing auxiliaries, equivalents of BE/ESSERE or HAVE/HAB¯ERE are employed together with the participial ANTERIOR (‘past’) morpheme. A distinction needs to be made between ‘passive sense’ and ‘passive denotation’. The claimis that languages such as German, along with numerous other languages, may be seen to provide a ‘passive’ by derivation from the complex ‘AUX+past participle’. The main body of the paper consists of evidence for the assumption that no direct passive meaning is provided by this complex ‘AUX+Anterior participle’, foremost from German. The past participle form has more than one function, an active and a passive one. The claim is that the past participle is void of any diathetic/ voice denotation except for the categorial status of adjectival. The latter allows the inference of a number of syntactic properties, i.e., most prominently a none-agentive external argument which, in syntactic collocation with the monovalent copulas sein and werden , contributes to the passive sense. A further distinction will be made between two different past participle lexicals: one on the basis of aspectual perfectivity implying an ‘approach phase’, antecedent to a result phase and presupposing an agentive external argument; and another, imperfective PP, which is amenable to the presupposition of such an ‘approach phase’ by way of pragmatic implicature. This distinction will be spelled in some detail in terms of formal semantics. Evidence for the formal and empirical correctness of this approach will be drawn from various languages similar to German in some, but not all, respects: Russian, Swedish, Dutch, and Latin. Turning to passive syntax it will be shown that the mere assumption of a passive morpho-syntax to be represented directly in UG-terms will not do justice to the evidence provided by the data and their distributional properties. Rather, it will be held and shown in some detail that passives are to be distinguished in accordance with their derivational basis as perfectives or imperfectives, not only as lexicals but also in terms of true clausal aspectual phrases (e.g., as regards directional vs. non-directional adverbs). Ergatives, commonly held to be a verbal class in their own right, will turn out as belonging to the perfective type of voice. In essence, this paper wants to demonstrate that there are principally two pathways toward a solution for the undecided semantics of the past participle forms: the ‘pragmatic’ solution presented in Section 4.5., where the fundamental semantics of the participle form is taken to be past without any voice reading. In Section 10, on the other hand, it is assumed that the participle formis a categorially underspecified ‘root’ in terms of Distributed Morphology reaching a specific reading only in an extended morphosyntactic context.

This study illustrates the development of the gender agreement in verb conjugation, which can be reconstructed in some linguistic varieties of West Iranian family, from Old Persian to Modern Central Dialects and Southern Tāti. A widely accepted hypothesis towards the rise of gender conjugation claims that agreement markers on verb always arise from grammaticalization of anaphoric pronouns. Never the less, in the case we are dealing with, gender conjugation is based on the agreement of the past participle. KEYWORDS: verbal inflection, agreement, Iranian languages, gender conjugation, grammaticalization

This study presents the analysis of writing programs which can increase the students’ writing skill by concerning students’ errors. The method used qualitative and quantitative analyses. The participants involved in this study were 30 students of the third level majoring in analytical chemistry department in Politeknik AKA Bogor, academic year 2021/2022. The Researcher wanted to know the area of errors in each writing program. The result shows that the average of grade students got in the program of teaching reading and vocabulary was 68.75% with 31.25% error in the area of identifying the words: analysis, analyze, analytical, analyst, prepare, preparation, determine, determination, require, and statistically. In the program of teaching grammar and structure, the students’ score average was 70% which was bigger than the first program. Meanwhile the average of error was 30% in the area of using past tense, present tense, present perfect tense, modal auxiliary, passive voice, relative clause, past and present participle. In the next program, analyzing sentences from chemistry textbook, the students had difficulty in identifying main and relative clauses, and analyzing present and past participles in a sentence. The students obtained 71.25% for the average of grade and 28.75% error. In writing from simple to complex sentences, the students got score 77.5% and 22.5% error in the area of making sentences consisting of main and relative clauses and applying present and past participles as verb in a sentence. Finally, after having 4 programs stated above, in the program of writing practice report, the students got average of grade 80% meaning excellent, and 20% error in the area of interpreting data in writing and developing main idea. This research finds that the writing programs: teaching reading vocabulary, teaching grammar and structure, analyzing sentences from chemistry textbook, writing from simple to complex sentences, and writing practical report are the writing programs that can increase the students’ writing skill. To make the decision which area of writing programs needs to have more attention, it can be determined by analyzing the students’ errors.

The aim of this paper is the analysis of errors commonly madein the 9-th grade students in urban and rural Albanian schools in the academic year 2018-2019 in using the passive voice. A quantitative approach is applied in conducting the research. The samples of the research are 24 students in both schools, 12 students in each school. The descriptive analysis method is used in this research to find the errors of the students and to analyze the data. “The major focus of this study is the Contrastive Analysis between the English passive forms through their Albanian correspondents; contribute to the theoretical linguistics, to the general theory of contrastive linguistics, to the development of contrastive studies in Albanian, to the development of Albanian prescriptive grammars.” [1] Theory of English grammar was used to know and understand the structure of English passive voice.While, the theory of error analysis was used to analyze the student’ errors based on the Linguistic Category Taxonomy particularly for the English passive voice, and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis was used to find out the similarity and the difference between English and Albanian passive voice. My assumption is that the difficulties the Albanian learners of English face are due to the following: 1. English and Albanian being typologically two different languages, bilingual ones: a. English as a typical analytical language. [2] b.The paradigm of the verb in the Albanian language is very wealthy in word-form. It includes 251 analytic and synthetic forms, from them, 49 are synthetic forms. These synthetic forms are built mostly using two grammatical tools: “ ndajshtesat eptimore ” which play the main role, in the verb eptim, and morphological changing, to which play not only the matter role in the grammatical forms building . [3] The English language in comparison with the Albanian and other languages has a lot of similarities and differences in passives. This study points out and finds differences and similarities between English and Albanian passives. Both of these languages have to be understood by the learners prior to learning the target language. First, besides, the Albanian learners in learning the English language are frequently influenced by Albanian structure and to transfer the forms and meanings from Albanian native language to the English language. Second, the results of data analysis clearly show that most passives are marked with “jam” and “folje ne te tashme” dhe “pjesore e shkuar e disa foljeve te shqipes ne prapashtesa –re (ne bere), -ar (ne punuar)”, which are also translated into passive in English (‘be’ plus ‘past participle’) plus ‘by-agent’. Some passives, namely translated into passives in English and some others are translated into actives. Third, in translating Albanian passives into English shifts inevitably take place on a grammatical level, on the aspect of tense. Part of the study is transitive, non-transitive, infinitives, its structure and the omission of it, participles and its comprehensions, gerunds, the structure and the use of them that change a lot from both languages, including the forms of – ing in comparing to English, the forms of “pa lare, me te lare dhe nje te lare”, which do not have forms, changing the forms of tenses, the use of “by-phrase”, passive clauses, incorrectness of ‘be’ and its omission, the correct use of conditionals, the misspelling of modals, wrong using of the order of passives, misformation of conditionals, the future “going to”, modals, passive infinitives all in passives. Keywords: Be, modal, transitive, non-transitive, by, passive voice, contrastive analysis, error analysis, data analyzing.

The article deals with a Lithuanian mirative construction based on the present active participle with the continuative and progressive prefix be-. In Lithuanian grammar it has been described as a tense form or (more recently) as a member of the evidential system, but it is here dealt with as a construction in its own right. On the basis of a corpus search the authors attempt to define the place of the mirative present among constructions containing the present active participle with the prefix be-, as well as its formal and functional properties and lexical input. In the diachronic section of the article it is suggested that the rise of the construction under discussion could have been, at least partly, the outcome of a distinct path of grammaticalisation (involving a post-nominal participial modifier in a presentative construction), different from that of both the progressiveproximative tense forms containing the participle with be- and the evidential forms based on participles. This, however, was not necessarily the only source of the construction: the pragmatic and emotive overtones developed by present progressives have probably also contributed to it. Mirativity has hitherto been known as one of the cluster of meanings characteristic of the Lithuanian evidential, but the analysis carried out in the article suggests that Lithuanian also has mirativity as a category in its own right, distinct from evidentiality.

The aim of this paper is to describe the peculiar syntactic behaviour of Greko and Calabrian of Bova (Reggio Calabria) in their patterns of auxiliary selection and participle agreement. The pluperfect of the former variety exhibits an analytic form consisting of the imperfect of BE and the active aorist participle, regardless of verb class, unlike Standard Modern Greek and Griko. Likewise, a similar pattern is attested in the Calabrese of Bova, which forms the pluperfect with the auxiliary BE with all verb classes, followed by the past participle. As for the agreement on the lexical verb, a previously unnoticed property of the Calabrian of Bova is that the past participle never exhibits agreement, even with unaccusatives. In addition to presenting our novel data, the article offers a number of diachronic and diatopic speculations regarding both phenomena.

This chapter examines the syntax and semantics of the English Konjunktiv II (K2) construction. Use of the K2 is restricted to an informal register of English; it is replaced by the past perfect in the standard, more formal, register. It occurs only in a subset of the syntactic environments in which the past perfect occurs, however, and is associated with a strongly counterfactual interpretation (primarily counterfactual conditionals and complements to wish-class verbs). Morpho-syntactically, K2 resembles the past perfect, insofar as it contains the preterit form of the auxiliary have (namely, had) followed by the past participle. K2 differs from the past perfect, however, in that an additional particle occurs between had and the past participle; this particle is phonologically a weak enclitic attached to had, and has been analyzed variously as a reduced form of the auxiliary verb have (– ’ve) or as a preposition (of) or particle (a); thus the past perfect form had gone corresponds to the K2 had’ve gone or had of gone. I analyze K2 syntactically as a subjunctive perfect form, where subjunctive mood is conveyed by the preterit affix –ed, and the perfect functions as a past polarity item signaling the presence of a covert past tense. The type of subjunctive mood that occurs in the K2 is distinct from the mandative subjunctive mood that occurs in the complements of demand/ask class verbs. Both types of subjunctive are licensed strictly locally, in contrast to the subjunctive mood licensed by negation in languages such as French. I suggest that this is related to the modal force of the subjunctive in these contexts. The particle of/have in the K2 is a subjunctive polarity item, disambiguating the subjunctive perfect from the indicative past perfect.

The article examines the periphrastic constructions, which consist of the verb imet' (to have) in the form of the present or past tense and the passive participle with the suffix -n- in The History of the Present State of the Ottoman Empire translated by P.A. Tolstoy in the early 18 th century. They are noted to appear in certain cases instead of the forms of passato prossimo and trapassato prossimo of the Italian version of this text. First of all, they are used in a meta-text function when referring to the above mentioned or to someone's words. Such verbal periphrases occur when there is a direct complement in the sentence. The participle in this construction is most often coordinated with the direct object, but in some examples, it can take the form of the neuter singular. This kind of the construction has a typological similarity with the second, or possessive, perfect in a number of Slavic languages (Czech, Kashubian, Macedonian). But unlike the possessive perfect proper, participial forms in such constructions in the translation of The History are formed only from Perfective or Imperfective of transitive verbs. Their use remains characteristic of a specific text, and it is not a part of the grammatical system of the language itself. However, the presence of different models of participle coordination in them indirectly reflects the process of grammaticalization of the passive participle form of the past tense in the Old Russian language.

This study investigates tense morphology in agrammatic aphasia and the predictions of two accounts on processing of regular and irregular verbs: the Dual Mechanism model, that is, for aphasic data, the Declarative/Procedural model, and the Single Mechanism approach. The production of regular, irregular and mixed verbs in the present, simple past and past participle (present perfect) was tested in German by means of a sentence completion task with a group of seven speakers with agrammatic aphasia. The results show a difference between regular verbs and irregular verbs. Mixed verbs were equally difficult as irregular verbs. A frequency effect was found for irregular verbs but not for regular and mixed verbs. A significant difference among the correctness scores for present tense and simple past forms was found. Simple past and past participle were significantly more difficult than present tense. Error types were characterized by pure infinitive responses and time reference errors. Neither of the above accounts is sufficient to explain these results. Correctness scores and error patterns for mixed verbs suggest that such minor lexical patterns can be useful in finding new evidence in the debate on morphological processing. The findings also highlight time reference as well as language specific characteristics need to be taken into consideration.