Abstract
The fungal pathogen Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’ Donnell) is the causal agent of pine pitch canker (PPC) disease, which seriously affects conifer species in forests and nurseries worldwide. In Europe, PPC is only established in the Iberian Peninsula; however, it is presumed that its range could expand through the continent in the near future. Infection caused by this fungus requires open wounds on the tree, including physical damage caused by insects. Therefore, a relationship probably occurs between PPC and a wide variety of insects. The aim of this review is to outline the taxonomic and ecological diversity of insect species with high potential association with F. circinatum in Europe and elsewhere. The insects were classified as vectors, carriers and wounding agents according to the association level with the PPC disease. In addition, we discuss the insect-mediated spreading of PPC disease in relation to the different phases of forest stand development, from seeds and seedlings in nurseries to mature stands. Lastly, to improve our predictive capacities and to design appropriate intervention measures and strategies for controlling disease dissemination by insects, variables such as geographic location, time of the year and host species should be considered. Our review provides a framework of the multiple factors that regulate the insect–host interactions and determine the success of the infection.
Highlights
The ascomycete fungus Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’ Donnell) is the causal agent of pine pitch canker (PPC), a serious disease that has been recorded in more than 50 species of pines (Pinus spp.) and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco [1]
Hylurgus beetles have not been found to be associated with PPC in Europe or North America [4,10], but should be considered possible carriers keeping in mind their ecology, life habits and frequent association with decaying pine hosts and fungi
F. circinatum has not been reported in Oceania [4,113], some potential vectors of PPC were reported in New Zealand
Summary
The ascomycete fungus Fusarium circinatum (Nirenberg and O’ Donnell) is the causal agent of pine pitch canker (PPC), a serious disease that has been recorded in more than 50 species of pines (Pinus spp.) and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco [1]. The insects mobility is important, and adults of the majority of the species associated with F. circinatum can actively move and disperse it by flight, resulting in a higher risk of disseminating the pathogen within and between forests. Another fundamental aspect is the ability of the insects to transport the spores of the fungi on their body, which conditions the phoretic rate, i.e., the proportion of insects carrying the pathogen, and which is dependent of a complex interaction between environmental factors and anatomical characters of the insect. We analyze the taxonomic and ecological diversity of insect species with known or high potential association with F. circinatum in Europe and elsewhere, and critically asses their potential risk as vectors sensu lato
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