Abstract
This paper addresses the enhanced removal of pharmaceutical compounds (PhCs), a family of contaminants of emerging concern, and effluent organic matter (EfOM) in water reclamation by powdered activated carbon/coagulation/ceramic microfiltration (PAC/cMF). Four chemically diverse PhCs are targeted: ibuprofen (IBP), carbamazepine (CBZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and atenolol (ATN). Pilot assays (100 L/(m2 h), 10 mg Fe/L) run with PhC-spiked sand-filtered secondary effluent and 15 mg/L PAC dosed in-line or to a 15-min contactor. They showed no PAC-driven membrane fouling and +15 to +18% added removal with PAC contactor, reaching significant removals of CBZ and ATN (59%–60%), SMX (50%), colour (48%), A254 (35%) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC, 28%). Earlier long-term demo tests with the same pilot proved PAC/cMF to consistently produce highly clarified (monthly median < 0.1 NTU) and bacteria-free water, regardless of the severe variations in its intake. A detailed cost analysis points to total production costs of 0.21 €/m3 for 50,000 m3/day and 20 years membrane lifespan, mainly associated to equipment/membranes replacement, capital and reagents.
Highlights
Across the European Union, water shortages and droughts have increased dramatically over the past 30 years and, due to climate change and increasing population, those events are likely to become more frequent and more severe, earnestly demanding more efficient water management
The reclamation scheme comprised sand filtration of the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) secondary effluent
The pilot Powdered activated carbon (PAC)/Fe/ceramic MF tests run with sand-filtered secondary effluent spiked with four chemically different pharmaceutical showed that 15 mg/L
Summary
Across the European Union, water shortages and droughts have increased dramatically over the past 30 years and, due to climate change and increasing population, those events are likely to become more frequent and more severe, earnestly demanding more efficient water management. Water reuse is an important tool for extending the water life cycle and in full compliance with the circular economy objectives, water reuse in the European Union has not yet been seriously tackled and is far below its potential. In many new regulations, including the Portuguese DL 119/2019, water reuse is supported by a fit-for-purpose approach, based on risk assessment and achieving risk minimization through multi-barrier criteria, including water-treatment barriers and physical barriers to limit contact. Cost analysis is fundamental to ensure a cost-effective treatment and to promote benchmarking between treatment alternatives
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