Abstract
Green-colored foods, such as broccoli, sprouts, soybean, and green leafy vegetables are considered one of the representative healthy foods for containing various functional ingredients that can combat chronic diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and cancer. Herein, we reviewed the anti-cancer activities and the underlying mechanisms of some important bioactive compounds, such as sulforaphane, catechins, chlorophyll, isoflavone, indole dervatives, and lutein, present in green-colored foods. In vivo and clinical studies suggest that sulforaphane, a sulfur-containing compound found in cruciferous vegetables, can ameliorate prostate and breast cancer symptoms by arresting cell-cycle progression and modulating Ki67 and HDAC expression. A green tea compound, known as epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), has shown remarkable anti-cancer effects against prostate cancer and lung adenocarcinoma in human trials through its antioxidative defense and immunomodulatory functions. Chlorophyll, a natural pigment found in all green plants, can regulate multiple cancer-related genes, including cyclin D1, CYP1A, CYP1B1, and p53. Epidemiological studies indicate that chlorophyll can substantially reduce aflatoxin level and can mitigate colon cancer in human subjects. Remarkably, the consumption of soy isoflavone has been found to be associated with the lower incidence and mortality of breast and prostate cancers in East Asia and in Canada. In vivo and in vitro data point out that isoflavone has modulatory effects on estrogen and androgen signaling pathways and the expression of MAPK, NfκB, Bcl-2, and PI3K/AKT in different cancer models. Other green food bioactive compounds, such as indole derivatives and lutein, also exhibited suppressing effects in rodent models of lung, liver, stomach, cervical, and prostate cancers. In addition, some micronutrients, such as folate, riboflavin, retinoic acid, and vitamin D3 present in green foods, also showed potential cancer suppressing effects. Taken together, these data suggest potential chemopreventive functions of the bioactive compounds from green-colored foods. This paper could be beneficial for further research on the anti-carcinogenic effects of green-colored food-derived compounds, in order to develop green chemotherapeutics for cancers.
Highlights
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.Traditionally, it is accepted that regular consumption of green-colored foods, such as spinach or cruciferous vegetables, can alleviate the risk of chronic diseases [1,2]
Previous literatures have demonstrated the habitual intake of green-colored food prevent or retard carcinogenesis step
Many epidemiological studies reported an adverse relationship between the administration of natural compounds derived from green-colored food and cancer incidences or death rates
Summary
A former study reported an inverse association between fruits and vegetable intake and the risk and mortality of coronary heart diseases, cardiovascular disease, and cancers [4]. The study showed that the total cancer risk was inversely associated with cruciferous vegetables (RR = 0.88) and green leafy vegetables (RR = 0.84) intake. The subjects who served with 77.5% green leafy vegetable were identified with lower risk of lung cancer (HR = 0.70; 95% CI = 0.51–0.98; P-trend = 0.05). It is worth concluding that the constituents in green-colored food, such as cruciferous or green leafy vegetables, could be associated with lower incidence and mortality of cancer. As greencolored foods contain various bioactive compounds, it is worth studying the individual compounds’ actions and their molecular mechanisms for understanding the anti-cancer activities of green-colored foods
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