Physiological and Biochemical Responses of Plants and Photoautotrophs to Abiotic Stress: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Abiotic stress factors such as drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, and heavy metals pose significant challenges to plant growth and productivity, impacting global agriculture and ecosystems. Photoautotrophs, including higher plants and algae, exhibit a variety of physiological and biochemical responses to mitigate the detrimental effects of these stressors. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the complex mechanisms underlying plant adaptation to abiotic stress, emphasizing the roles of osmotic adjustment, antioxidant defense, hormonal regulation, and stress-responsive gene expression. Key physiological responses, such as stomatal regulation, root architecture modifications, and chlorophyll stability, are discussed alongside biochemical adaptations, including the accumulation of osmolytes, synthesis of stress proteins, and activation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Additionally, the review explores recent advancements in genetic and biotechnological approaches for enhancing plant resilience to abiotic stress, highlighting potential applications in agriculture. By examining the intricate interplay between physiological and biochemical pathways in response to stress, this review aims to deepen understanding of adaptive strategies in photoautotrophs, offering insights for the development of stress-tolerant crop varieties essential for food security in changing environments.