PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BEESWAX FROM FOUR DIFFERENT HONEY BEE (Apis) SPECIES

Investigation on the improvement of shea butter yield and quality through enhanced pre-treatment methods: An analytical study on physicochemical properties

Pure beeswaxes produced in different climatic regions of Spain have been characterized by the determination of nine physico-chemical parameters: density, acid, saponification, ester, ratio number, iodine, peroxide, melting point and ash content values. The official methods of analysis to determine density and saponification values in fats and oils were not suitable for beeswaxes; alternative methods are proposed in this work for both parameters. After verifying the precision of the methods and the value guidelines, the usefulness of the physico-chemical parameters to detect adulterations with paraffin, stearic acid, carnauba wax and tallow was tested: adulteration percentages of 5%, or higher, were commonly detected. Marketed foundation beeswax sheets, rejected or badly accepted by the bees, were also analyzed to discuss their quality; 25 out of 27 beeswax sheets show anomalous values for at least one parameter.

هدف از این مطالعه بررسی اثر روش استخراج به کمک مایکروویو بر بازدهی استخراج و بعضی از خصوصیات شیمیایی روغن جوانه گندم در مقایسه با روش متداول سوکسله بود. همچنین، روغن جوانه‌ گندم به‌عنوان یک آنتی‌اکسیدان طبیعی برای بهبود پایداری اکسایشی روغن ماهی کیلکا مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. ابتدا نمونه‌‌های جوانه گندم تحت پیش تیمار مایکروویو قرار گرفته و سپس عملیات استخراج با روش سوکسله انجام گردید. بازدهی استخراج، عدد صابونی، عدد اسیدی، عدد یدی و پروفایل اسیدهای چرب روغن جوانه‌ گندم استخراج شده با مایکروویو با روش متداول سوکسله مقایسه شدند. روغن جوانه‌ گندم در غلظت ppm 1000 به روغن ماهی کیلکا افزوده شد. روغن ماهی کیلکای فاقد آنتی‌اکسیدان نیز به‌عنوان نمونه‌ی کنترل در نظر گرفته شد. عدد پراکسید و آنیزیدین نمونه‌های روغن ماهی کیلکا طی 15 روز نگهداری در دمای 60 درجه سلسیوس اندازه‌گیری شدند. روش استخراج به کمک مایکروویو بازدهی استخراج روغن جوانه‌ گندم را 27-15% افزایش داد. ترکیب اسید چرب روغن جوانه‌ گندم استخراج شده به کمک مایکروویو مشابه با روغن استخراج شده با روش متداول سوکسله بود. عدد اسیدی و صابونی نمونه استخراج شده با مایکروویو به‌ترتیب 07/2% و 65/9% بیشتر از نمونه استخراج شده با سوکسله بود. عدد یدی در روش‌های استخراج با مایکروویو و سوکسله و به‌ترتیب برابر با 75/124 و 90/132 ‌گرم ید/100 گرم روغن بود. روغن جوانه گندم به شکل قابل توجهی عدد پراکسید، آنیزیدین و توتوکس روغن ماهی کیلکا را کاهش داد. زمان القاء و فاکتور حفاظت نمونه روغن ماهی کیلکا حاوی جوانه گندم (به‌ترتیب 20/120 ساعت و 42/1) به‌طور قابل توجهی بیشتر از نمونه‌ کنترل (به‌ترتیب 40/84 ساعت و 00/1) بود. به شکل کلی، روغن جوانه‌ گندم استخراج شده با مایکروویو می‌تواند به‌عنوان یک آنتی‌اکسیدان طبیعی جهت افزایش پایداری اکسایشی روغن ماهی کیلکا پیشنهاد شود.

This research seeks to determine the effect of storage periods and packaging materials on the proximate and chemical properties of frozen blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou) at different exposure time – 0 hour, 2 hours and 4 hours, on arrival at the laboratory. Frozen M. poutassou were bought and stored in a commercial cold room for 12 weeks at -10oC and packed in different packaging materials (Ziploc bag, foil paper and carton) with un-wrapped samples for analysis which lasted 90 days and was conducted every 14 days to measure the moisture, protein, fat, ash, fibre and nitrogen free extract (NFA) content of the fish sample as well as iodine value, peroxide value, saponification value, acid value, free fatty acid and hydroxyl value of fish oil. The result clearly reveals that during storage, the different packaging materials showed significantly (p<0.05) decreasing trend in protein, lipid, ash, fibre and NFA content with increasing storage period and time of analysis except for the moisture content that showed opposite trend. For the chemical properties, the saponification value, peroxide value, free fatty acid, acid value and hydroxyl value showed significantly (p<0.05) increasing trend in the different packaging materials with increasing storage period and time of analysis. While the iodine value decreased with increasing period of storage and time of analysis; the iodine, saponification, peroxide and hydroxyl values were not within the acceptable limits.

The suitability of native pear Dacryodes edulis seeds as a source of good quality vegetable oil was investigated. Oil was extracted from the dried seeds by simple solvent extraction process with hexane. Extracted oil was degummed using 0.2% H3PO4 or Na2CO3 solutions, and then bleached with activated carbon. Chemical (acid value (AV), saponification number (SN), peroxide value (PV), and iodine value (IV)) and physical (smoke point (SP), flash point (FP), melting point (MP) and freezing point) analyses were carried out on both the crude and refined oils. Results showed that the crude oil had AV of 9.6 mg KOH/g, SN of 72.8. Degumming (with 0.2%Na2CO3 and 0.2%H3PO4) and bleaching gave oils with lower AV (7.45 mgKOH/gfat) and higher acid value (9.4 mgKOH/gfat), respectively. Iodine value (48.78 ml/g) of the 0.2% Na2CO3 degummed oil was higher than that of the seed oil degummed with 0.2% H3PO4 (25.35 ml/g). Bleaching of 0.2% Na2CO3 degummed oil resulted in oil with peroxide value of 20 mgEq/Kg which was higher than that of 0.2% H3PO4 degummed and bleached (19.4 mgEq/Kg) oil. Key words: Native pear, seeds, degumming, bleaching, deodorizing, extraction, vegetable oil.

The study was conducted to evaluate physico-chemical properties of beeswax from Bale natural forest Southeastern of Ethiopia in 2014/15. For analysis fifteen (15) crude beeswax samples each of 1 to 3 kg were obtained from three locations considering the different agro-ecologies of Bale and compared against to the national and international standards. The physico-chemical characters evaluated were: melting point, specific gravity, refractive index, volatile matter, acid value, saponification value, ester value, and acid to ester ratio. Although there were some significant variation (P <0.05) between the different agro-ecologies, all samples collected were found in the range of the national and international standard limits. The means results of beeswax sample collected were Melting Point (62.39±0.12), Acid Value (22.33±0.39), Ester Value (75.58±0.84), Ester to Acid Ratio (3.38±0.07), Saponification Value (98.04±0.86), Specific gravity (0.9598±0.001), Refractive Index (1.4426±0.0002) and Volatile Matter (0.3335±0.027). Results obtained in this study, indicate that beeswax obtained from Bale show excellent quality characters according to the national and international standards. Hence, it is advisable to utilize the potentials for export market with better improved technology interventions.

Refined palm oil (RPO) and palm olein (PO) are significant products in the vegetable oil industry, widely used across various sectors. Therefore, the objective of this paper was to investigate the physicochemical Parameters such as free fatty acid content, acid value, peroxide value, saponification value, and iodine value of Refined Palm Oil (RPO) and Palm Olein (PO) using appropriate standard methods. Data obtained show that the physicochemical parameters of RPO and PO were Acid value (5.24 ± 0.49; 20.94 ± 0.82), Peroxide value (6.73 ± 0.13; 2.56 ± 0.07), Saponification value (161.28 ± 5.48; 163.34 ± 5.62), Free fatty acid (0.06 ± 0.01; 0.46 ± 0.01) and Iodine value (16.8 ± 0.86; 8.37 ± 3.22) respectively. The results of this study are expected to promote the adoption of RPO and PO in environmentally friendly energy solutions, while also enhancing their economic viability and performance in the marketplace.

Beeswax is a natural product that is primarily produced by honey bees of the genus Apis. It has many uses in various kinds of industries, including pharmacy and medicine. This study investigated the effect of storage and floral origin on some physicochemical properties of four beeswax samples. The floral origin of the beeswax samples was determined microscopically and the investigated physical properties were the melting point, color, surface characteristics and thermal behavior. The studied chemical constituents were the acid value, ester value, saponification value and the ester/acid ratio. The FT-IR, SEM, EDX, XRD and TGF techniques were applied to meet the objectives of this study. The physical properties of the beeswax were affected by the storage period and floral origin. The melting point of the beeswax samples significantly increased with the increase in the storage time, from 61.5 ± 2.12 °C for the 3 month sample to 74.5 ± 3.54 °C for the 2 year stored sample (p-value = 0.027). The acid values of the 3 month, 6 month, 1 year and 2 years stored samples were 19.57 ± 0.95, 22.95 ± 1.91, 27 ± 1.91 and 34.42 ± 0.95 mgKOH/g, respectively. The increase in the acid value was significant (p-value = 0.002). The ester values of the studied beeswax samples significantly increased with the increase in storage time as follows: 46.57 ± 2.86 mgKOH/g for the 3 month stored sample, 66.14 ± 3.82 mgKOH/g for the 6 month stored sample, 89.77 ± 0.95 mgKOH/g for the one year stored sample and 97.19 ± 1.91 mgKOH/g for the 2 year stored sample (p-value ≤ 0.001). Similarly, the saponification value and the carbon percentages increased with the increase in storage time. Unlike the results of the chemical components, the oxygen percentage decreased with the increase in storage time as follows: 11.24% (3 month), 10.31% (6 month), 7.97% (one year) and 6.74% (two year). The storage and floral origin of beeswax significantly affected its physicochemical properties in a way that qualify it to act as a phase changing material in the thermal storage energy technology.

In this study the extraction of fat and avocado seeds. The method used to obtain the fat of meat and avocado seeds is by cold extraction with blender for 2 minutes and heat extraction with reflux for 2 hours. The purpose of this study was to determine: (1) how much fat can be obtained from the flesh and avocado seeds. (2) how characteristics meat and avocado seed that is by determination of the number of saponification, acid number, melting point and organoleptic. The result of fat analysis on the flesh obtained fat of 3.5%, saponification number 64,515 mg KOH / g, acid number 3.08 mg KOH / g, melting point 28-35 °C with greenish-yellow fat color and avocado scent. In the avocado seeds obtained fat by 1.5%, the saponification number 119.493 mg KOH / g, acid number 3.30 mg KOH/g, melting point 26-407 °C with brownish yellow color and the smell of avocado seeds.

Bee pollen is known for its nutritional value, and therefore it is used in the treatment of some health disorders as food supplements. Herein, the chemical fatty acid profile and mineral contents of two Algerian bee pollen collected from different regions were investigated, along with their physicochemical properties such as specific gravity, refractive index, and acid, saponification, and iodine values. In addition, their total phenolic contents (TPC) were also investigated. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis revealed that the bee pollens mainly contained palmitic (17.0 and 26.5 %), oleic (8.5 and 10.1 %), linoleic (15.7 and 12.6 %) and linolenic acids (27.2 and 26.3 %), respectively. The saponification values were 178.54 and 175.73 mg KOH.g-1, while the specific gravity 0.915 and 0.924, the refractive index 1.465 and 1.464, and acid values 22.04, and 10.01 mg KOH.g-1 oil. The iodine values were, however, 44.42 and 32.90 mg I2.g-1 fat, respectively. Potassium and sodium were the main detected elements in both pollen samples with variable percentages. In the DPPH assay, the IC50 was 4.88 and 1.73 mg.mL-1 for samples 1 and 2, respectively, ABTS and phosphomolybdenum assays supported DPPH assay results. It was concluded that the fat part of bee pollen by honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) is a promising source of naturally occurring antioxidants and nutrients.

Sunflower seeds are one of the fourth most widely used sources of edible oil production in the world. The content of unsaturated fatty acids in these oils reaches almost 85%. A previous report showed that a fatty acid can inhibit the growth of bacteria that cause infections which are mostly caused by the nature of bacterial resistance. This study focused on the antibacterial activity of sunflower seed oil derivatives; namely K-salt (K-soap), free fatty acids (FFAs), and fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). The fatty acids in sunflower oil is linoleic (49.57%), 11-octadecenoic acid (39.09%), palmitic (9.06%), and stearic (2.28%) acids. The as-synthesized K-soap is solid, white, melting point 167-184 °C, soluble in water and methanol. FFAs are yellow, liquid, boiling point 201 °C, density 0.94 g.cm−3, refractive index 1.46, viscosity 57.30 cSt, soluble in methanol, chloroform, and n-hexane, acid value 171.35, saponification value 176.73, and ester value 5.38. The FAMEs are yellow, liquid, boiling point 185 °C, density 0.89 g.cm−3, refractive index 1.45, viscosity 4.34 cSt, soluble in chloroform and n-hexane. The acid, saponification, and ester values of K-soap, FFAs, and FAMEs are 0.98, 210.96, and 202.98 respectively. They are potential as antibacterial against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.

Objective: The present study aimed to prepare Panchaguna taila (PGT) and its development in various dosage forms, i.e. ointment, gel, cream, and physiowax to exemplify the characteristic parameters according to pharmaceutical standards.Methods: PGT is polyherbal medicated oil used externally for treating wounds, cut, and burn and used for massaging in rheumatoid arthritis, muscular pain, sprains, and joints pain. Prepare the decoction using Haritaki, Vibhitaki, Amalaki, Nimba, Sambhalu and prepare paste (kalka) from Madhuchishta, Gandhaphiroja, Shilarasa, Rala, and Guggulu. Mix all the ingredients and heat till watery portion not evaporated from the oil with constant stirring then filter it. Add eucalyptus oil, turpentine oil, and kejoputi oil at the end and stir it well. Prepare various dosage forms like ointment, gel, cream, and physiowax using suitable base for the better and improved therapeutic application. Analytical standards for PGT such as acid value, saponification value, iodine value, and peroxide value were performed, and obtained results were appeared under the prescribed limit of the official monograph. Various physicochemical parameters such as homogeneity, spreadability, pH, and melting point were performed for PGT ointment, PGT gel, PGT cream, and PGT physiowax. Stability study of PGT was done for 3 days under the accelerated conditions.Results: In PGT, various physicochemical parameters were performed on the interval of 24, 48, and 72 hrs, and no significant variation found in their physicochemical properties when observed values were compared. PGT ointment, PGT gel, PGT cream, and PGT physiowax containing PGT as active pharmaceutical ingredient with various suitable excipients and base are easy to formulate and convenient to apply over the affected area. Rf observed between the ranges 0.21 to 0.84 as given in the standard monograph. In PGT, PGT ointment and PGT physiowax, 10 spots were found, and in PGT gel and PGT cream, 7 spots were found. 0.11, 0.15, and 0.34 spots were found in the PGT gel, PGT cream, and PGT physiowax, respectively, that can be given by the excipients or base used for their preparation.Conclusion: It is possible to make other dosage form of PGT which can be more convenient to the customers. Hence, the issues related to the PGT like staining and sticking can be resolved by developing or converting the PGT into various convenient dosages.

Background: Pruthvisara taila is Niragni snehapaka (Aditya paka taila). It is indicated in Kushta and Vruna, mentionedby classical text Chakradatta. AIM: An attempt was made to prepare Pruthvisara taila by two methods and analyse the difference between both the samples on the basis of organoleptic characters and physico-chemical parameters. Methodology: In pharmaceutical study, the Pruthvisara taila was prepared by both methods; Niragni (Aditya paka-sunlight as source of heat)and Sagni) using fire as source of heat) & in analytical study both the samples were subjected for physicochemical analysis like pH, Viscosity, Refractive index, Specific Gravity, Acid Value, Iodine value, Saponification Value, Unsaponifiable matter,Peroxide value and Rancidity. Results: Results of the study on the parameters assessed on the samples after preparation by both the methods;duration required for the preparation of Aditya paka Pruthvisara taila is 24 days and for Sagni Pruthvisara taila is 5 days.Viscosity of NPT(Niragni Pruthvisara taila) was 127.1497 and SPT (Sagni Pruthvisara taila) 89.3996, refractive index was 1.47807 w/w and 1.47607 w/w respectively. The specific gravity of NPT and SPT were 0.9142w/w and 0.8866 w/w respectively. Acid value is more in SPT (108.46 w/w) as compared to NPT (62.76w/w). Iodine value is more in SPT (245.34w/w) as compared to NPT (58.37).The SPT(222.75 w/w) sample has got more saponification value than NPT (200.75w/w). The unsaponifiable matter in NPT has 1.84% and SPT has 4.80%. Conclusion: Acid value indicates about the short shelf life of the drug, which was comparatively more in Sagni Pruthvisara taila than Niragni Pruthvisara taila, hence the early chances of rancidity are more in SPT.Percentage of saturated and long chain fatty acids are more in Niragni Pruthvisara taila when compared to Sagni Pruthvisara taila which was revealed through iodine value and saponification value. Hence the NPT is less susceptible to oxidation and rancidity.

This study examined oil extraction from clove and ginger using two methods: Maceration method and Soxhlet extraction method. The materials (clove and ginger) were purchased locally from a credible vendor at Erekesan Market, Akure, Ondo State. The oils’ physicochemical properties analyzed included pH, color, specific gravity, impurity content, and moisture content. Additionally, the Free Fatty Acid (FFA) value, acid value, Thiobarbituric acid (TBA) value, saponification value, and FFA profile were assessed. The pH (4.52 - 6.08) and specific gravity (0.85 - 0.97) were well within the accepted range. The oils' hues deviated from those documented in prior studies, likely due to the elevated temperature exposure during extraction. The impurity content varied from acceptable (7.07%) to unacceptable (21.59%) for edible oils. The moisture contents (1.37 - 8.88%) indicate low susceptibility to microbial growth. The commercial ginger oil (control) exhibited the lowest FFA (5.51 g/100ml) and acid value (10.96 g/100ml), indicating better stability and resistance to rancidity while the clove oil (Soxhlet method) had the highest FFA (10.10 g/100ml) and acid value (20.10 g/100ml), therefore it has the least desirable quality. The oils’ TBA values (0.0024 - 0.0025 mgMDA/g) indicate enhanced stability and extended shelf life while their saponification value (80.15 - 196.08 mg/g), indicate varying but ideal FFA molecular weights. The oil samples showed diverse FFA profile: the higher ΣSFA composition (73.58%) of the commercial ginger oil (control) implies an undesirable quality as it has a higher risk of heart disease when consumed in large quantity while the ginger and clove samples extracted using maceration exhibited desirable ΣMUFA (22.99%) and ΣPUFA (22.78%) compositions. These affirm the influence of the extraction methods on the quality indices of the oils. Based on the analyses conducted, it is concluded that the maceration extraction method is superior in producing higher-quality oils.

This study analyzed and compared the physicochemical properties of oils produced from groundnut, melon, watermelon and orange seeds. The moisture content, saponification value, iodine value, peroxide value, acid value, free fatty acid, ester value, refractive index, viscosity, density, specific gravity, cloud point, pour point, flash point and fire point of the oils were analyzed. There were no significant differences in iodine value, peroxide value, refractive index, viscosity, specific gravity, cloud point, pour point, flash point and fire point, while there were significant differences in the moisture content, saponification value, acid value, free fatty acid, ester value, and density, The results revealed that these oils contain low fatty acid value and they are good sources of edible oil as they have low acid value. These oils also have great potentials as industrially promising oils, with their high saponification and iodine values, they will be good raw materials for bio-lubricant production and for a variety of industrial applications.