Abstract
Dispersal and gene flow are important mechanisms affecting the dynamics of vectors and their pathogens. Here, patterns of genetic diversity were analyzed in many North European populations of the tick, Ixodes ricinus. Population sites were selected within and between areas separated by geographical barriers in order to evaluate the importance of tick transportation by birds in producing genetic connectivity across open sea and mountain ranges. The phylogenetic analyses of the mitochondrial control region and the cytochrome b gene revealed two distinct clades with supported sub-clades, with three genetic lineages: GB and WNo associated with Great Britain and western Norway respectively, and Eu with a wider distribution across continental Europe in agreement with much lower efficiency of tick dispersal by birds than by large mammals. The results suggest different ancestry of I. ricinus colonizing Britain and the rest of northern Europe, possibly from different glacial refuges, while ticks from western Norway and continental Europe share a more recent common ancestry. Demographic history modeling suggests a period of strong increase in tick abundance coincident with progression of the European Neolithic culture, long after their post-glacial colonization of NW Europe.
Highlights
Ticks (Acari; Ixodidae) are bloodsucking ectoparasites of most terrestrial vertebrates, and they have a great impact on the public health and rural economy in many parts of the world [1]
Ixodes ricinus were collected from 22 different sites in northern Europe (Fig 1 and S1 Table) with a sampling design focusing on the possible impact of geographical barriers such as open seas and mountain ranges in NW Europe
Spatial genetic structuring generally reflects a combination of historical vicariance, geographic isolation and ecological characteristics of the species [40, 41] Other studies have shown little genetic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) structuring among I. ricinus populations of continental Europe at both local and regional scales, but substantial differences between North African and European populations [9, 10, 19]
Summary
Ticks (Acari; Ixodidae) are bloodsucking ectoparasites of most terrestrial vertebrates, and they have a great impact on the public health and rural economy in many parts of the world [1]. Ixodes ricinus is a widespread and common European tick species that infests both birds and mammal hosts, and is an important vector for a wide range of pathogens. The tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) complex and the Borrelia complex of spirochetes may cause serious diseases in humans [2, 3] while a series of other pathogens mainly represent problems for livestock [4, 5]. Phylogenetic lineages of the tick Ixodes ricinus in N-W Europe had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript
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