Abstract
Hot spring water may harbour emerging waterborne opportunistic pathogens that can cause infections in humans. We have investigated the diversity and antimicrobial resistance of culturable emerging and opportunistic bacterial pathogens, in water and sediment of hot springs located in Limpopo, South Africa. Aerobic bacteria were cultured and identified using 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) gene sequencing. The presence of Legionella spp. was investigated using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Isolates were tested for resistance to ten antibiotics representing six different classes: β-lactam (carbenicillin), aminoglycosides (gentamycin, kanamycin, streptomycin), tetracycline, amphenicols (chloramphenicol, ceftriaxone), sulphonamides (co-trimoxazole) and quinolones (nalidixic acid, norfloxacin). Gram-positive Kocuria sp. and Arthrobacter sp. and gram-negative Cupriavidus sp., Ralstonia sp., Cronobacter sp., Tepidimonas sp., Hafnia sp. and Sphingomonas sp. were isolated, all recognised as emerging food-borne pathogens. Legionella spp. was not detected throughout the study. Isolates of Kocuria, Arthrobacter and Hafnia and an unknown species of the class Gammaproteobacteria were resistant to two antibiotics in different combinations of carbenicillin, ceftriaxone, nalidixic acid and chloramphenicol. Cronobacter sp. was sensitive to all ten antibiotics. This study suggests that hot springs are potential reservoirs for emerging opportunistic pathogens, including multiple antibiotic resistant strains, and highlights the presence of unknown populations of emerging and potential waterborne opportunistic pathogens in the environment.
Highlights
Precious water resources are threatened by pathogen pollution due to human activities, and waterborne diseases are well described and investigated globally, including in South Africa [1,2,3].Well-known waterborne bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Vibrio cholera, Helicobacter, Shigella, Pseudomonas, non-tuberculosis mycobacteria and Legionella, while protozoa infections include Acanthamoeba and Naegleria fowleri [2]
The study confirmed the presence of the phyla Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria
Actinobacteria was represented by two genera (Kocuria and Arthrobacter)
Summary
Precious water resources are threatened by pathogen pollution due to human activities, and waterborne diseases are well described and investigated globally, including in South Africa [1,2,3]. Well-known waterborne bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Vibrio cholera, Helicobacter, Shigella, Pseudomonas, non-tuberculosis mycobacteria and Legionella, while protozoa infections include Acanthamoeba and Naegleria fowleri [2]. Most waterborne diseases result in diarrhoea, and globally more than 2.2 million children die each year as a result. In South Africa, diarrhoea is the leading cause of mortality in children under five years old [4]. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1070; doi:10.3390/ijerph14091070 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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