Phthalates, non-phthalates, polychlorinated biphenyls, and phenyl phosphates in atmospheric suspended particulate matter of Dhahran City, Saudi Arabia: levels and seasonal variation

Abstract

This is the first report to describe the seasonal variations, levels, and possible health effects of groups of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) as phthalates (Ps), non-phthalates (NPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and phenyl phosphates (PhePhs) in ambient total suspended particles (TSP) from the city of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The mass concentrations of TSP ranged from 88 ± 32 μg m−3 in winter to 350 ± 320 μg m−3 in summer. The total concentrations of these compounds varied from 337 ± 266 ng m−3 in summer to 469 ± 403 ng m−3 in winter. The major compounds were Ps (235 ± 199 ng m−3 in summer to 389 ± 335 ng m−3 in winter), PCBs (30.7 ± 19.3 ng m−3 in autumn to 65.6 ± 61.2 ng m−3 in summer), NPs (4.9 ± 2.3 ng m−3 in summer to 11.9 ± 12.5 ng m−3 in winter), and PhePhs (4.1 ± 4.0 ng m−3 in spring to 13.3 ± 3.2 ng m−3 in summer). The proportional fractions of these POPs relative to natural biogenic sources and petroleum-related emissions were extremely high ranging from 17% in winter to 47% in autumn. Significant correlations were found among these different POP groups and total concentrations, suggesting that they were from local sources. Principal component analysis indicated that Ps and NPs were from the same initial sources, and the PhePhs as well as PCBs were from different regional sources, where the latter were dependent on the TSP levels. In the long term, the elevated levels of these POPs in the TSP of these urban areas will affect human health by eventually developing a range of illnesses.