Photocatalytic degradation of paracetamol on Pd–BiVO4 under visible light irradiation

Abstract

In this study, Pd–BiVO4 bearing highly dispersed Pd nanoparticles was prepared from pure BiVO4 using an impregnation method. The pure BiVO4 and Pd–BiVO4 catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, UV–visible diffuse reflection, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The results showed that the prepared catalysts had a monoclinic scheelite structure and exhibited a flake-like morphology. Pd–BiVO4 showed a distinct response in the visible light region, with an extended absorption edge at 550 nm. According to the Scherrer formula, the nanocrystal particle sizes of the BiVO4 and Pd–BiVO4 catalysts were 35 and 28 nm, respectively. Highly dispersed Pd nanoparticles with sizes of 2.5 ± 0.5 nm were observed on the BiVO4 surface. Two Pd valence states, Pd(II) and Pd(0), were identified in a 2:1 ratio. Pd–BiVO4 exhibited excellent activity for paracetamol (PCT) degradation, with 100% removal achieved in 1 h under visible light irradiation. During degradation, the mineralization ratio reached up to 40% total organic carbon removal. Two highly active species, namely, hydroxyl and superoxide radicals, were determined by electron spin resonance (ESR). Furthermore, the potential degradation of PCT in this system was proposed based on intermediate information obtained using HPLC-MS and Gauss analysis. The high dispersion and small size of Pd nanoparticles might favor the removal of emerging contaminants using the Pd–BiVO4 photocatalytic system.