Abstract
AbstractAlkaline metal ion batteries, such as lithium‐ion batteries have been increasingly adopted in consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and large power grids because of their high energy density, power density and working voltage, and long cycle life. Phosphorus‐based materials including phosphorus anodes and metal phosphides with high theoretical capacity, natural abundance, and environmental friendliness show great potential as negative electrodes for alkaline metal ion batteries. In this review, based on the understanding of the storage mechanism of alkali metal ions, the scientific challenges are discussed, the preparation methods and solutions to address these challenges are summarized, the application prospects are demonstrated, and finally possible future research directions of phosphorus‐based materials are provided.
Highlights
With the aggravation of energy and environmental crises, rechargeable battery like lithium ion batteries (LIBs) have wide application prospects in portable consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and energy storage grids.[1,2,3,4] In addition to LIBs, sodium ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium ion batteries (PIBs) have attracted extensive attention recently due to their abundant resources.[5]
Carbon materials commonly used in phosphorus/carbon composites (P/C) can be classified into 0D C60 and carbon black (CB),[145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154] 1D carbon nanotubes (CNTs)[153,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162] and carbon nanofibers (CNFs),[17,163,164,165] 2D graphene,[166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179] and 3D porous carbon[180,181,182,183,184,185,186] and graphite.[187,188]
During the charging and discharging process, red phosphorus (RP) demonstrates an alloying reaction mechanism, while black phosphorus (BP) proceeds according to first, intercalation and alloying
Summary
With the aggravation of energy and environmental crises, rechargeable battery like lithium ion batteries (LIBs) have wide application prospects in portable consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and energy storage grids.[1,2,3,4] In addition to LIBs, sodium ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium ion batteries (PIBs) have attracted extensive attention recently due to their abundant resources.[5]. In which Em, QC, Qa, Uc, Ua, and K are the energy density, specific capacity of cathode and anode, average potential of cathode and anode, and the proportion of active materials in battery, respectively.[8] In LIBs, the K value is usually between 0.42 and 0.61. For SIBs, phosphorus exhibits the highest theoretical specific capacity (2590 mA h g−1) among all anode materials and considerably low work potential (≈0.3 V vs Na/Na+), making its superiority obvious.[12,13,14] For PIBs, its theoretical specific capacity is the largest (the value may be 2590 mA h g−1 based on K3P) and the average voltage is moderate (≈0.6 V vs K/K+).[15] In addition, phosphorus can be derived from rich resources, has low price, and exhibits minor pollution potential.[16,17,18] phosphorus-based anode materials show great potential in AIBs and have recently attracted extensive attention from researchers (Figure 1b). Because of the partial similarity between phosphorus anode (P anode) and metal phosphides (MxPy) systems, in this review we consider both as phosphorus-based composites
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