Phenolic Compounds and Ginsenosides in Ginseng Shoots and Their Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Capacities in LPS-Induced RAW264.7 Mouse Macrophages.

Fan Yao,Yujun Liu,Qiang Xue,Xinxin Cao,Ke Li,Liwei Sun

doi:10.3390/ijms20122951

Fan Yao, Yujun Liu + Show 4 more

Open Access

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20122951

Copy DOI

Abstract

We conducted this study for the first time to evaluate changes in the composition and contents of phenolic compounds and ginsenosides in ginseng shoot extracts (GSEs) prepared with different steaming times (2, 4, and 6 h) at 120 °C, as well as their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 mouse macrophages (RAW264.7 cells). The results show that total phenol and flavonoid contents were both significantly higher in steamed versus raw GSEs, and the same trend was found for 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH•) and 2,2′-azobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS•+) scavenging capacities. Among the 18 ginsenosides quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with the aid of pure standards, polar ginsenosides were abundant in raw GSEs, whereas less-polar or rare ginsenosides appeared after steaming at 120 °C and increased with steaming time. Furthermore, steamed GSEs exhibited a greater ability to inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as nitric oxide (NO), interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells at the same concentration. Relative expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), IL-6, TNF-α, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNAs were attenuated by the GSEs, probably due to the enrichment of less-polar ginsenosides and enhanced antioxidant activity in steamed GSEs. These findings, combined with correlation analysis, showed that less-polar ginsenosides were major contributors to the inhibition of the overproduction of various inflammatory factors, while the inhibitory effects of total phenols and total flavonoids, and their antioxidant abilities, are also important.

Highlights

Inflammation, a defense reaction to alert the immune system and protect the host from infection with various pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, is generally beneficial to the host due to its ability to repair injured tissues and maintain homeostasis, which are regulated by numerous inflammatory mediators and cytokines including nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) [1]
Numerous studies have demonstrated that red ginseng—produced when fresh ginseng undergoes repeated steaming and drying—exhibits higher anticancer potential than fresh ginseng due to its abundant contents of less-polar or rare ginsenosides, such as ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, Rk1 and Rh2, which are generated during steaming [11,12]
We examined the contents of total phenols and total flavonoids, and the 2,2 -diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2 -azobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) antioxidant abilities of the extracts from ginseng shoots steamed at 120 ◦C for different times for the first time; clarified effects of steaming on transformation mechanisms from polar to less-polar ginsenosides in ginseng shoots; and systematically and comprehensively compared the anti-inflammatory effects of steamed and un-steamed ginseng shoots extracts (GESs) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 mouse macrophages (RAW264.7 cells), along with identification of the composition and determination of the contents of ginsenosides of the extracts

Summary

Introduction

Inflammation, a defense reaction to alert the immune system and protect the host from infection with various pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, is generally beneficial to the host due to its ability to repair injured tissues and maintain homeostasis, which are regulated by numerous inflammatory mediators and cytokines including nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) [1]. Red ginseng, which causes fewer side effects compared to fresh ginseng, exhibits protective effects against microbial infections and positive effects on memory [13,14], and attenuates the pro-oxidant conditions associated with chronic diseases and improves peripheral circulation disorders [15,16]. Red ginseng possesses various health-promoting effects, no study has compared the anti-inflammatory effects between red and white ginseng

Methods

Results

Conclusion