Abstract
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) include over-the-counter and prescription drugs, veterinary drugs, fragrances, and cosmetics. PPCPs have been detected in aquatic environments at low concentrations and are emerging as contaminants of concern. PPCPs are primarily released into aquatic environments via untreated sewage, wastewater treatment plants, landfill leachate and can affect aquatic life through persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. However, there are limited reviews of lethal and sublethal effects of PPCP exposures on aquatic organisms. To understand PPCP toxicity on aquatic organisms, a literature review was conducted that identified aquatic organisms known to be affected by PPCPs; concentrations of PPCPs reported as producing sublethal and lethal effects in aquatic organisms; and research gaps on PPCP aquatic toxicity. Twelve PPCPs were selected from three seminal studies for review, including bisphenol A, carbamazepine, erythromycin, fluoxetine, linear alkylbenzene sulfonate, metoprolol, naproxen, nonylphenol, ofloxacin, sertraline, sulfamethoxazole, and triclosan. Many aquatic species were affected by PPCPs at sublethal and lethal exposures, including sublethal effects at environmentally relevant concentrations. Because lethal effects were seldom observed at environmentally relevant concentrations, many studies considered PPCPs non-toxic. Few studies have compared effects of PPCPs on the same organisms for identical exposure parameters (time and concentration), resulting in wide variation in reported toxicity levels with limited consensus in the academic literature. Consensus in lethal concentrations was reported for Daphnia magna with 48 h exposure for bisphenol A and triclosan and Vibrio fischeri with 15 min exposure to carbamazepine. Environmentally relevant sublethal concentrations were higher than water quality guidelines developed for Canada and predicted no-effect concentrations derived globally. Species sensitivity distributions for some PPCPs show that aquatic species are affected lethally at environmentally relevant concentrations. More studies on indirect and long-term ecological effects along with testing chronic toxicity of PPCPs at environmentally relevant concentrations are recommended. These will help guide future research to determine extent and magnitude of PPCP concentrations in aquatic environments and help inform management decisions to reduce sources of PPCPs into the environment. Future management requires effective monitoring strategies regarding use, disposal, occurrence, and impacts at different life cycle stages of PPCPs in the environment.
Highlights
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) comprise numerous classes of chemicals
Results include identification of the (i) number of studies conducted on aquatic toxicity for each of the 12 priority PPCPs; (ii) number and names of diverse aquatic species affected by measurable concentrations of these PPCPs; (iii) sublethal and lethal concentrations of these PPCPs reported in reviewed articles as producing effects in aquatic organisms; (iv) ranges of environmentally relevant concentrations of PPCPs in surface water in Canada and worldwide; (v) water quality guidelines developed for the protection of aquatic life in Canada and predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) derived while conducting environmental risk assessments (ERAs) in various jurisdictions worldwide; and (vi) generation of sensitivity distributions (SSDs) for identified PPCPs with sufficient data in this review
This paper reviewed the literature to identify the diverse aquatic species affected by PPCPs and the variety of sublethal and lethal effects produced on their exposure to 12 priority PPCPs
Summary
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) comprise numerous classes of chemicals. Results include identification of the (i) number of studies conducted on aquatic toxicity for each of the 12 priority PPCPs; (ii) number and names of diverse aquatic species affected by measurable (i.e., detectable) concentrations of these PPCPs; (iii) sublethal and lethal concentrations of these PPCPs reported in reviewed articles as producing effects in aquatic organisms; (iv) ranges of environmentally relevant concentrations of PPCPs in surface water in Canada and worldwide; (v) water quality guidelines developed for the protection of aquatic life in Canada and PNECs derived while conducting ERAs in various jurisdictions worldwide; and (vi) generation of SSDs for identified PPCPs with sufficient data in this review.
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