Permeability heterogeneity of sandstone intrusion fluid‐escape systems, Panoche Hills, California: Implications for sedimentary basins globally

Abstract

AbstractNatural surface gas seeps provide a significant input of greenhouse gas emissions into the Earth’s atmosphere and hydrosphere. The gas flux is controlled by the properties of underlying fluid‐escape conduits, which are present within sedimentary basins globally. These conduits permit pressure‐driven fluid flow, hydraulically connecting deeper strata with the Earth’s surface; however they can only be fully resolved at sub‐seismic scale. Here, a novel ‘minus cement and matrix permeability’ method using three‐dimensional X‐ray micro‐computed tomography imaging enables the improved petrophysical linkage of outcrop and sub‐surface data. The methodology is applied to the largest known outcrop of an inactive fluid‐escape system, the Panoche Giant Intrusion Complex in Central California, where samples were collected along transects of the 600 to 800 m stratigraphic depth range to constrain porosity and permeability spatial heterogeneity. The presence of silica cement and clay matrix within the intergranular pores of sand intrusions are the primary control of porosity (17 to 27%) and permeability (≤1 to ca 500 mD) spatial heterogeneity within the outcrop analogue system. Following the digital removal of clay matrix and silica (opal‐CT and quartz) cement derived from the mudstone host strata, the sand intrusions have porosity−permeability ranges of ca 30 to 40% and 103 to 104 mD. These calculations are closely comparable to active sub‐surface systems in sedimentary basins. Field observations revealed that, at decreasing depth, the connected sand intrusion network reduces in thickness and becomes carbonate cemented, terminating at carbonate mounds formed from methane escape at the seafloor. A new conceptual model integrates the pore‐scale calculations and field‐scale observations to highlight the key processes that control sand intrusion permeability, spatially and temporally. The study demonstrates the control of matrix and cement addition on the physical properties of fluid‐escape conduits, which has significance for hydrocarbon reservoir characterization and modelling, as well as subsurface CO2 and energy storage containment assessment.