Abstract
Wireless sensor networks use thousands of sensors to monitor the physical environment. This sensor node consumes a limited amount of energy since it is battery-powered. Researchers regularly develop energy-efficient routing protocols to extend the lifetime of WSNs. The threshold-based cluster head (CH) selection techniques used by hierarchical routing protocols have been shown to extend network lifetime in many studies. Through the implementation of several routing protocols, sensor networks can be made to last longer and consume less energy. Z-SEP introduces a new heterogeneous routing protocol using a hybrid communication mechanism. Others use clustering mechanisms, while others use the base station directly. Energy efficiency and stability are improved by 11% and 19%, respectively, over Z-SEP
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