Abstract
Objective: Many children suffering from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) show problems in executive functions (EF), which reflect neuronal pathways from perception to controlled action. Treatment approaches that improve executive functions may prevent a negative cycle of failures in students. Hence, this research aims to study the efficacy of the perceptual-motor skills reconstruction program on EF in children with ADHD while considering cognitive flexibility, abstract verbal skills, response inhibition, and working memory. Also, its effect on clinical ADHD symptoms should be considered. Method: The research design included pretest, posttest, and a follow-up after six months. The sample included third-grade school children with ADHD (50 students, aged 8–10 years, boys and girls) who were referred to the Child Psychology Clinic, Iran, Mashhad 2018–2019. After clinical assessment for ADHD, children were randomly assigned to an experimental (n = 25) and a waiting control (n = 25) group. The experimental group received the perceptual-motor skills reconstruction program for 16 sessions (three times per week, i.e., five weeks and one session in the sixth week). Delis–Kaplan executive function system (D-KEFS) was applied at three measurement points (M1–3) in order to test for changes over time. Results: Data analysis (analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with post-hoc-testing) showed that there was a significantly better performance of experimental versus waiting control group at posttest (M2) and follow-up (M3) for cognitive flexibility (t(24) = 4.9, df = 14, p < 0.0001), abstract verbal skills (t(24) = 3.5, df = 14, p < 0.004), response inhibition (t(24) = 7.54, df = 14, p < 0.0001) and working memory (t(24) = 12.69, df = 14, p < 0.004). Further, Conners-Scales-Score improved for the experimental group. Conclusions: Training with perceptual-motor skills reconstruction program clearly improved the trained variables (i.e., cognitive flexibility, abstract verbal skills, response inhibition, and working memory) and clinical symptoms of the children with ADHD. The obtained training may lead in practice to better preconditions for successfully handling daily tasks at school and in society.
Highlights
IntroductionAttention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood (with a worldwide prevalence of approximately 5%)
The research question was: “does the perceptual-motor skills reconstruction program have any positive effect on cognitive flexibility, abstract verbal skills, working memory, and response inhibition of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?”
Our findings demonstrated that the executive functions of children with ADHD improved after completing the perceptual-motor skills reconstruction program training for 16 sessions
Summary
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood (with a worldwide prevalence of approximately 5%). ADHD is classified into three different types (according to DSM-5 “presentations”): inattentive type, hyperactive-impulsive type, combination type. It is characterized by psychosocially impairing attention-deficit, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which in many cases is complicated by associated psychopathologies like emotional and conduct problems [1]. Shooshtary et al [2] conducted a study in Iran and found that the prevalence of ADHD was 8–12% among Iranian children.
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