Pendant in the Jewelry Fashion of the Northern Renaissance and Mannerism

Problem setting: Recent trends of the science of history of state and law development are convincing evidence of the urgent need to improve and put in order all the methodological arsenal that is used. Sometimes the question is raised more radically: historical and legal science immediately needs its own means of scientific knowledge. This is due to the fact that in modern research on historical and legal subject-matter, that is extremely complex, a scientist needs a qualitative methodological tools acting primarily as a guideline in the vast historical and legal space. Comparative historical and legal method is able to be one of those guidelines which main difference from other comparative means of scientific knowledge is a flexible combination of comparative, historical and legal approaches. Despite the fact that this method is qualitatively different from the comparative and historical, and comparative and legal ones they have development history in common. M. M. Kovalevsky is considered to be the scientist who made the most weighty contribution to the working out of that methodological tendency of legal science. The work of this pre-revolutionary researcher in the field of legal comparative study is so fruitful that still remains a subject of attention of various legal disciplines, including the history of state and law science. Recent research and publications analysis: A lot of prominent history scientists and lawyers have repeatedly focused on M. M. Kovalevsky ’ s historical and comparative method. Furthermore, M. A. Damirli, V. T. Zonov, O. V. Kresin, M. N. Marchenko, N. Nikolaenko, A. H. Saidov, A. O. Tille, E. O. Skrypilyov, I. M. Sytar, G. V. Shvekov and others are among them. At the same time, despite the coverage of the individual elements of M. M. Kovalevsky ’ s comparative method in the scientific literature, the holistic view of its structure and functions of each of its components is not formed yet. Appropriate research using structural and functional approach is required. Paper objective: The purpose of this scientific paper is the structural and functional analysis of M. M. Kovalevsky ’ s historical and comparative method by isolating its elements such as the theory, methodology and research technique. As a result, this should allow to debate about the importance of this way of knowledge for the development of law comparative study as the subject matter at hand. Paper main body: In his work « Historical and comparative method in jurisprudence and ways of studying the history of law » M. M. Kovalevsky seeks not only to prove the importance of comparative way of knowledge for research in the field of law, but also provides initial theoretical and methodological reasoning of the new method. In the context of structural and functional approach to the content of M. M. Kovalevsky ’ s historical and comparative method it is already possible to single out its necessary elements such as the theory, methods and research technique, indicating the scientist ’ s attempts to develop a certain concept of use of this means of knowledge. In particular, he reveals the theory of his method by setting tasks of building the history of progressive forms development for living together and studying the history of law of one nation or another and also through historical and comparative approaches to their solution. In M. M. Kovalevsky ’ s work we can also find the principles of the research objectives use which are the basis of his method theory. Methods and technique of historical and comparative analysis subject to the requirement to compare the largest possible number of objects, in the form of legislation, that should belong to peoples which are close in their social development, and are specified in the appropriate practical recommendations. In addition, M. M. Kovalevsky directly indicates the possibility for involving other methodological ways during the comparative analysis to obtain new facts. Conclusions of the research: Estimating the M. M. Kovalevsky’s efforts in the methodology of historical and legal comparative study it should be noted that the attitude to his method in the scientific community is controversial. While agreeing, in general, with a positive appreciation of the M. M. Kovalevsky’s scientific heritage it should be pointed that the scientist first qualitatively tried to develop theoretical and methodological basis for the historical and comparative method in the domestic comparative study. Despite the fact that while theoretically reasoning his own method, M. M. Kovalevsky lacked modern structural and functional approach, but in most cases he was able to aptly describe the individual elements of the theory, methods and technique of the new means of special and scientific knowledge.

Previous articleNext article FreeHoudon’s Bather in a Drawing by Pierre Antoine MonginTanya PaulTanya PaulIsabel and Alfred Bader Curator of European Art, Milwaukee Art Museum Search for more articles by this author PDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmailQR Code SectionsMoreIn 2011 the Philbrook Museum of Art, Tulsa, was given a modest graphite drawing by the relatively little-known artist Pierre Antoine Mongin (1761/62–1827). It was purchased by the donor, former Philbrook curator Richard P. Townsend, about 1987 from the Chicago dealer William Schab.1 The drawing came with the spurious title Fountain of Diana at the Bath and with no additional information (Figure 1). Its sketchy handling and small size, and the relative obscurity of the artist, might suggest—erroneously as it turns out—that the drawing has little to reveal. In fact, what this unassuming drawing actually depicts is crucial for our understanding of Jean Antoine Houdon’s exquisite marble Bather (Figure 3), bequeathed to The Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1913.1. Pierre Antoine Mongin (French, 1761/62–1827). Study of a Fountain with Bather and Attendant, 1782–95. Graphite on cream laid paper, 5¾ × 4⅜ in. (14.6 × 11.1 cm). Philbrook Museum of Art, Tulsa, Gift of Richard P. Townsend in memory of his grandparents Harry and Joan R. Renek (2011.2). Photograph: Shane CulpepperThis simply executed sketch depicts a fountain with two nude female figures, one sitting, one standing. The seated figure is shown in profile, with her left leg elegantly extended. Behind her, the standing figure bends slightly over her, appearing to pour water on her neck and back. The group is at the center of a wide basin supported by an architectural foot, and the fountain is pictured in a vaguely defined outdoor setting, with a canopy of leaves and branches framing the scene. This is apparently a study of a motif rather than a finished compositional drawing. Similar studies by Mongin survive in the collections of the Louvre and the Art Institute of Chicago.2 Thus, this drawing is wholly in keeping with Mongin’s oeuvre and his preferred subject matter.Pierre Antoine Mongin studied at the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture in Paris and exhibited at the Salon from 1791 to 1824. He was a painter, a watercolorist, and an engraver, and later in life he became known for the decorative wallpapers of exotic scenes that he designed for the French manufacturer Zuber et Cie.3 Landscape was his primary subject. In particular, he favored landscapes with gardens carefully manicured and ornamented with sculpture, fountains, follies, and other garden architecture. He depicted many of the great French châteaus with their lavish and extensive parks, including Versailles, Saint-Cloud, and the Château d’Anet in Dreux (see Figure 2).4 Mongin’s work is similar in tone to that of more celebrated contemporaries like Jean Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806). In fact, his wallpaper designs, when installed, would have functioned as murals portraying gardens or exotic locales, complete with amorous, elegantly attired couples strolling, chatting, and sometimes cavorting.5 In some senses they simulated commissioned suites of paintings such as Fragonard’s Progress of Love.62. Pierre Antoine Mongin. View of the Park at Versailles: Landscape with Memorial Column and Grove of Trees, n.d. Black chalk, heightened with white chalk, on blue laid paper, 17½ × 24¼ in. (44.5 × 61.4 cm). The Art Institute of Chicago, Gift of William H. and Frederick G. Schab in honor of Harold Joachim (1968.684.12)Mongin also proved exceptionally pragmatic and willing to embrace technological innovation, as his work for the wallpaper manufacturer Zuber suggests. In 1816 Godefroy Engelmann (1788–1839) moved to Paris from Munich, where he had been studying the new technology of lithography. In Paris he opened a small press in the rue Cassette and in the same year, 1816, submitted his first lithograph to the dépôt légal. That print was a landscape by Mongin entitled Le Chien de l’aveugle.7 More lithographs after his designs quickly followed. Engelmann, aided in no small part by Mongin, is generally credited with France’s supremacy in lithography. In many ways, Mongin’s work with both Engelmann and Zuber reflects the degree to which his career straddled the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries and took cues from earlier traditions as well as the emerging industrial age.The drawing given to the Philbrook Museum is distinctly eighteenth-century in character. Though it came with the title Fountain of Diana at the Bath, and though the fountain shows a woman being bathed, the drawing includes none of the attributes traditionally associated with Diana. However, those familiar with the Metropolitan Museum’s collection of French sculpture will recognize the familiar form of Jean Antoine Houdon’s Bather (Figure 3). That only this marble fragment of the fountain that Mongin sketched survives owes in large part to the circumstances of the fountain’s history.3. Jean Antoine Houdon (French, 1741–1828). Bather, 1782. Marble, 47 × 43 × 28 in. (119.4 × 109.2 × 71.1 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Benjamin Altman, 1913 (14.40.673). Photograph: Paul Lachenauer, The Photograph Studio, MMAHoudon (1741–1828) proposed his fountain with a bather and an attendant to Jean Baptiste Marie Pierre (1714–1789), director of the Académie Royale and premier peintre du roi, as a suitable royal commission by early 1779.8 In a letter of January 10, 1779, to the comte d’Angiviller, director of the Bâtiments du Roi, Pierre described the group as a “marble figure of a Bather, life-size, and another figure in lead, of the same size. The latter would represent an Attendant.”9 Probably because of Houdon’s high estimate of the cost of the fountain group, the project never became a royal commission. Nonetheless, Houdon managed to obtain a prestigious patron—his proposed fountain group would be acquired by the king’s cousin Louis-Philippe-Joseph d’Orléans, duc de Chartres, who intended the fountain for the large pleasure garden he was having built at Monceau.10 This garden, designed by Louis Carrogis, known as Louis de Carmontelle (1717–1806), was located on twenty-eight acres northwest of Paris and southwest of the village of Monceau. The design was exceptionally ambitious, sprawling across the landscape and containing sculptures, fountains, follies, countless meandering paths, and a number of exotic touches such as a minaret and a Dutch windmill. It was a garden designed to amuse, entertain, and even entrance its well-heeled visitors.11 The garden was commemorated by a 1779 publication created by Carmontelle himself, in which text and seventeen engraved views as well as a ground plan guide the reader on a tour along the paths and past the many sights to be found there (Figures 4–6). Interestingly, the garden vistas with which Carmontelle highlighted his text are very much in keeping with the oeuvre of Mongin, including elegantly dressed visitors enjoying the garden’s various aspects. In the body of this text we encounter the first substantial description of Houdon’s fountain group. Carmontelle described the visitor’s journey through a part of the garden he called the Bois irrégulier (Irregular Wood), past an antique statue of Mercury and two ruined monuments. The visitor would then arrive in a small clearing, where “there is a basin encircled by three steps, where one sees a figure of a woman in white marble, who is bathing, and a Negress in bronze [sic], who is pouring water over her body. These two figures are by M. Houdon.”124. Louis de Carmontelle (French, 1717–1806). Plan du Jardin de Monceau, Appartenant à S.A.S. Monseigneur le duc de Chartres. Carmontelle 1779, pl. 1. Engraving, sheet 16¼ × 22½ in. (41.3 × 57.2 cm). Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. (Typ 715.79.260)Since Pierre wrote that the attendant figure would be cast in lead, it is odd that Carmontelle described the figure as made of bronze. And though the fountain’s location is indicated on the plan of the garden (at lower left), to the immediate left of the narrow end of the large oval pool that Carmontelle called the “Circus” or the “Naumachia” (Figure 5), the fountain group appears in none of the broad views of the garden. It should be visible in the view of the Naumachia, and yet it is not there (Figure 6). As we know from the map, the fountain would have been located behind the columns seen in this illustration, and the water from it would have fed the large oval pool. To explain these seeming anomalies, it is important to recall that Carmontelle’s guidebook came out in 1779, yet as of January 10 of that year Houdon’s fountain was still in the design stage. The fountain had been commissioned and the location chosen for it in the park, but at the time of the guidebook’s publication it had been neither completed nor installed.135. Detail of Figure 46. Louis de Carmontelle. Vüe du Cirque ou de la Naumachie, Prise du Point K. Carmontelle 1779, pl. 11. Engraving, sheet 16¼ × 22½ in. (41.3 × 57.2 cm). Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. (Typ 715.79.260)In a list Houdon himself compiled of his work, he put the fountain group under the year 1781,14 and the marble Bather at the Metropolitan Museum is inscribed with the date 1782. A description of the fountain and its installation in the Jardin de Monceau was included in the catalogue to the Salon of 1783, indicating that the fountain was still considered new and was already installed at Monceau.15The first substantial description of the fountain that was written once the piece was in situ appears in a 1787 guidebook to Paris by Luc-Vincent Thiéry, which contains an account of the Jardin de Monceau. Like Carmontelle’s description, Thiéry’s discussion is structured like a guided stroll through the garden. Once again, the reader is taken through the Irregular Wood to a clearing where could be seen “a basin of white marble, in the middle of which is a charming group by M. Houdon, Sculptor to the King, representing a superb figure in white marble, taking a bath; behind her is another woman, executed in lead and painted black, a negress holding in one hand a white marble drapery, and in the other a gold ewer, from which she spills water over the body of her mistress, whence it falls in sheets into the basin.”16 That Thiéry’s account of the fountain was not illustrated is regrettable, since the fountain remained in the grove for only a brief period. The duc d’Orléans (which title the duc de Chartres inherited on the death of his father in 1785) was guillotined in 1793, and his pleasure park fell into disrepair. In October 1794, Houdon described the fountain: “A group: a Bather in marble on whom a Negress in lead pours water, for the garden of Monceau. The Negress is in bad shape and needs to be restored.”17 A year later, when the Commission Temporaire des Arts appropriated the fountain figures, the head of the attendant was missing.18 At some point after the fountain group’s confiscation, the now-headless attendant figure disappeared, probably to be melted down. The sole contemporary trace of the lead figure that survives is a plaster version of the head, which is in the collection of the Musée Municipale Ancienne Abbaye Saint-Léger, Soissons (Figure 7).19 Houdon’s innovative fountain group was dismembered and largely destroyed just thirteen or fourteen years after its installation.7. Jean Antoine Houdon. Head of a Negress, probably 1781. Painted plaster, 12⅝ × 8¼ in. (32 × 21 cm) with base. Musée Municipale Ancienne Abbaye Saint-Léger, Soissons (93.7.2766). Photograph: M. Minetto © Musée de SoissonsHoudon’s maquette for the fountain—presumably the model shown to the duc d’Orléans in 1779—appeared in a sale in France on July 30, 1786,20 and can then be traced down through a series of collections until the early twentieth century, when it was with Duveen Brothers in London. A version of the maquette is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum (Figure 8)21 and serves to convey Houdon’s original plan for the disposition of the figures in the fountain. It differs somewhat from Mongin’s sketch, particularly in the orientation of the attendant, in the shape of the vessel she holds, and in the design of the basin itself, and it is precisely these incongruities that make Mongin’s drawing so significant, documenting as it does changes and adjustments that were made to the fountain during the fabrication process. Indeed, Mongin’s sketch is now the sole visual record of Houdon’s exquisite and unusual fountain as it was actually—and all too briefly—installed in the Jardin de Monceau.8. Attributed to Jean Antoine Houdon. The Bather, ca. 1780 or 19th–early 20th century. Terracotta, H. 8⅛ in. (20.6 cm), Diam. 6¼ in. (15.9 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Friedsam Collection, Bequest of Michael Friedsam, 1931 (32.100.159). Photograph: Katya ShaposhnikNotes1William Schab gave drawings by Mongin to the Art Institute of Chicago (1968.684.1–12) and the Musée du Louvre, Paris (donated in 1973, RF 35723). He may have had a collection of Mongin’s drawings. Indeed, the drawings given to Chicago are mounted in an album and appear to be a thematically linked group; email correspondence with Suzanne Karr Schmidt, curator at the Art Institute of Chicago, September 18–21, 2012.2For some studies by Mongin at the Louvre and the Art Institute of Chicago, see also notes 1 and 4.3Argencourt et al. 1999, pp. 463–65.4Among the works by Mongin that William Schab gave the Art Institute of Chicago are scenes of Versailles, including View of the Park at Versailles: Women Bathing Beneath a Bridge (1968.684.10bR). The drawing he gave the Louvre depicts the Château d’Anet (Vue du jardin du château d’Anet, RF 35723r).5Two relevant sources on Mongin’s wallpaper designs are Jacqué 1980 and Ravanel 1999.6Fragonard’s Progress of Love, originally painted for Madame du Barry, is in the Frick Collection, New York, 1915.1.45–55A–D.7Gilmour 1996, p. 483.8Poulet 2003, pp. 241, 245n2.9Furcy-Raynaud 1906, p. 238: “en marbre une figure de Baigneuse, grande comme nature, et une autre figure en plomb, de même proportion. Cette dernière représentera une Suivante.” Translation from Poulet 2003, p. 241.10Poulet 2003, p. 241.11Carmontelle was also employed to provide entertainment in the household of the duc de Chartres, where he wrote skits, sketched portraits of visitors, and arranged similar charming diversions; Hays 2001, pp. 295–96. Much has been written on the Jardin de Monceau, today’s Parc Monceau; see, especially, Andia 1978, pp. 25–35; Hays 1990; Hays 1999; and Disponzio 2006.12Carmontelle 1779, p. 9: “il y a un bassin entouré de trois marches, où l’on voit une figure de femme du marbre blanc, qui se bagne, & une Négresse de bronze, qui lui répand de l’eau sur le corps. Ces deux figures sont de M. Houdon.” Translation from Poulet 2003, p. 241.13This conclusion is shared by Hays (2001, pp. 309–10, 414n82).14This list was published in Vitry 1907. It was reprinted in Arnason 1975, pp. 127–29; the fountain group is no. 81 on p. 128.15Salon 1783, p. 49, no. 251: “Une Fontaine composée de deux figures de grandeur naturelle, l’une en marbre blanc, & l’autre imitant une Négresse, exécutées & placées dans le Jardin de Monseigneur le Duc de Chartres, à Mouceaux [sic], près de Paris.”16Thiéry 1787, vol. 1, pp. 69–70: “un bassin de marbre blanc, au milieu duquel est un charmant groupe de M. Houdon, Sculpteur du Roi, représentant une superbe figure de marbre blanc, prenant un bain; derrière elle, une autre femme, exécutée en plomb & peinte en noir, figure une négresse tenant d’une main une draperie de marbre blanc, & de l’autre une aiguière d’or, dont elle répand l’eau sur le corps de sa maîtresse, d’où elle retombe en nappe dans le bassin.”17Réau 1964, vol. 1, p. 99: “Un groupe: une Baigneuse en marbre sur laquelle une négresse en plomb verse de l’eau, pour le jardin de Monceau. La négresse est en mauvais état et a besoin d’être restaurée.” Translation from Poulet 2003, p. 243.18Poulet 2003, pp. 243, 245n9.19See ibid., pp. 241–45, no. 42. Two bronze bust-length versions of the attendant also exist, both late nineteenth- or early twentieth-century casts. A full-size cast is in the Musée Nissim de Camondo, Paris (CAM 259), and a reduced cast is in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris (D 37621).20Ibid., p. 245n6.21Another version of the maquette was in the auction of the estate of Mrs. Evelyn St. George, Catalogue of the Important Contents of Cam House, Campden Hill (Sotheby & Co., London, July 24–25, 1939, lot 84). In 1940, Preston Remington, curator at the Metropolitan Museum, visited Duveen Brothers in London. While there, he was shown Mrs. St. George’s maquette and told by Edward Fowles of Duveen the following things about it: that he had purchased it at her estate sale; that it was the original, bought for her by J. Pierpont Morgan; and that the Museum’s maquette was a cast made by Duveen for Benjamin Altman soon after he had acquired the marble Bather from Duveen in 1910–11. According to notes in the Metropolitan’s Department of European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, the formerly Mrs. St. George maquette was still at Duveen in New York in 1961; its present location is unknown. Altman’s version came into the Museum with the bequest of Michael Friedsam in 1931.ReferencesAndia, Béatrice de 1978 De Bagatelle à Monceau, 1778–1978: Les Folies au XVIIIe siècle à Paris. Exh. cat. Paris: Musée Carnavalet.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarArgencourt, Louise d ’, et al. 1999 European Paintings of the 19th Century. 2 vols. Part 4 of The Cleveland Museum of Art: Catalogue of Paintings. Cleveland.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarArnason, H. H. 1975 The Sculptures of Houdon. New York: Oxford University Press.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarCarmontelle, Louis de [Louis Carrogis] 1779 Jardin de Monceau, près de Paris, appartenant à son Altesse Sérénissime Monseigneur le duc de Chartres. Paris: Delafosse, Née & Masquelier.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarDisponzio, Joseph 2006 “From Eden to the Seraglio: Louis Carrogis de Carmontelle’s Jardin de Monceau and the Persiflage of the Picturesque.” In Fragments: Architecture and the Unfinished; Essays Presented to Robin Middleton, edited by Barry Bergdoll and Werner Oechslin, pp. 245–66. London: Thames and Hudson.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarFurcy-Raynaud, Marc, ed. 1906 Correspondance de M. d’Angiviller avec Pierre. Part 1. Nouvelles Archives de l’art français, ser. 3, 21. Paris: Jean Schemit.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarGilmour, Pat 1996 “Lithography.” In The Dictionary of Art, edited by Jane Turner, vol. 19, pp. 479–94. New York: Grove.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarHays, David L. 1990 “The History of the Jardin de Monceau, 1769–1779.” 2 vols. AB thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.First citation in articleGoogle Scholar———1999 “Carmontelle’s Design for the Jardin de Monceau: A Freemasonic Garden in Late-Eighteenth-Century France.” Eighteenth-Century Studies 32, no. 4 (Summer), pp. 447–62.First citation in articleCrossrefGoogle Scholar———2001 “‘This Is Not a Jardin Anglais’: Carmontelle, the Jardin de Monceau, and Irregular Garden Design in Late-Eighteenth-Century France.” In Mirka Beneš and Dianne Suzette Harris, Villas and Gardens in Early Modern Italy and France, pp. 294–326, 408–19. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.First citation in articleGoogle ScholarJacqué, Bernard 1980 “Papiers peint panoramique et jardins: L’Oeuvre de P. A. Mongin chez J. Zuber et Cie (1804–1827).” Nouvelles de no. pp. citation in articleGoogle L. Sculptor of the Exh. cat. Washington, of citation in articleGoogle 1999 et du no. pp. citation in articleGoogle Louis et son 2 vols. Exh. 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The purpose of the article is to explore the features of the development of Circus Art and to determine the place of Circus performances in the cultural space of Lviv in the 1880s.Research methodology. The historical, biographical and comparative methods have been applied to achieve the purpose.Results. The Circus performances at the ethnic territories of the Western Ukraine at the time that they were a part of the Habsburg Empire have never been a subject of the scientific research and analysis. The offered article, focused on the period of the 1880s in the city of Lemberg, is the following step in the author’s cycle of articles that are concerned with the representation of Circus Arts in Bukovyna and Eastern Galicia in the late 19th century — the early 20th century. In the article, the Circus performances and the performances of circus artists at the stages of the theaters and the variety venues in Lviv in the 1880s are described in the chronological sequence, based on the materials of the periodical press of the studied period. The author analyzes the repertoire of the Circuses, describes the performances of the most significant performers and determines the features of the development of the Circus Art presented in the Galician capital in the described period. Novelty. An attempt is made to determine the place of the Circus Art in the cultural space of Lviv and its perception by the public.The practical significance. The offered article contains unknown facts of the Circus History of Ukraine; and the results of the research would become a valuable contribution to both culturology and art studies.Conclusions. In spite of the fact that in the second half of the 19th century the Circus has been a threatening competitor for the Polish Theatre in Galicia, it has obtained a significant place in the cultural space of Lviv; and it has been the leading attraction in the Entertainment industry. The Circus genres and artists’ skills have been fast and successfully developing in the late 19th century. Some of the leading artists have performed at the Circus arenas and the theatrical stages in Lviv. Some of the leading European Circus troupes have been visiting Lviv during the 1880s.

The purpose of the article is to study the activities of Colonel I. G. Starinov and his interaction with state secu-rity bodies aimed at forming a strategy and tactics of sabotage work. It is stressed that his methods of work became a benchmark for carrying out special actions to destroy the critical infrastructure of the enemy and elimi-nate the leaders of enemy military and administrative structures. A wide range of historical research methods, such as comparative and historical methods, comparative meth-ods and others are used. Starinov' s activity is consid-ered as a reflection of the epoch in the military history of Russia. During his life, Starinov was called «the genius of the explosion», «the god of sabotage», «the grandfather of the Russian special forces». Being on duty, at various stages of his career, I. G. Starinov was in close coopera-tion with the security bodies: the OGPU, the NKVD, the MGB and the KGB. This cooperation took place during his work on the training of sabotage personnel in the 1930s in the Ukrainian Military District, and during his business trip to Spain. During the Great Patriotic War, I. G. Starinov, together with NKVD officers, trained CHEKA officers for sabotage and partisan work. In the postwar period I. G. Starinov worked again with KGB officers on a teaching job. As a result, the authors come to the conclusion that the activity of I. G. Starinov became the basis for the formation of special services in Soviet Russia. The au-thors emphasize that Starinov’ s methods of work in the field of sabotage are so perfect that they are of great importance to the present day, and are still in practical use by modern state security bodies and the Armed Forces of Russia.

This innovative history of British art museums begins in the early 19th century. The National Gallery and the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum) in London may have been at the center of activity, but museums in cities such as Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, and Nottingham were immensely popular and attracted enthusiastic audiences. The People's Galleries traces the rise of art museums in Britain through World War I, focusing on the phenomenon of municipal galleries. This richly illustrated book argues that these regional museums represented a new type of institution: an art gallery for a working-class audience, appropriate for the rapidly expanding cities and shaped by liberal ideals. As their broad appeal weakened with the new century, they adapted and became more conventional. Using a wide range of sources, the book studies the patrons and the publics, the collecting policies, the temporary exhibitions, and the architecture of these institutions, as well as the complex range of reasons for their foundation.

This thesis investigates current digitization approaches to photographic albums by surveying the practices at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, England alongside three other London-based institutions: the British Museum, British Library, and National Portrait Gallery. It highlights the value in researching and recording these documentation methods as an integral yet often overlooked part of museums’ institutional history. For contextual background for the survey, a brief history of photographic albums and their inherent conservation issues is presented along with albums’ digitization guidelines and a discussion of how digitization influences our relationship to the original object. The types of digitization methods employed at each institution is then examined to understand how curatorial and technical factors influence the digitization process and to observe the trends across the four institutions. A case study was performed at the Victoria and Albert Museum of a photographic album being digitized and is included in the appendices.

This thesis investigates current digitization approaches to photographic albums by surveying the practices at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, England alongside three other London-based institutions: the British Museum, British Library, and National Portrait Gallery. It highlights the value in researching and recording these documentation methods as an integral yet often overlooked part of museums’ institutional history. For contextual background for the survey, a brief history of photographic albums and their inherent conservation issues is presented along with albums’ digitization guidelines and a discussion of how digitization influences our relationship to the original object. The types of digitization methods employed at each institution is then examined to understand how curatorial and technical factors influence the digitization process and to observe the trends across the four institutions. A case study was performed at the Victoria and Albert Museum of a photographic album being digitized and is included in the appendices.

The role of Ukrainian folk ornament in the Art Nouveau graphic: theoretical and applied aspects

The purpose of the research is to analyze the stylistic and narrative peculiarities of the works of genre realistic painting dedicated to Roma images of the 19th – early 20th centuries. Research methodology. To achieve this purpose, the comparative historical method and art historical analysis were used. The scientific novelty of the study is justified by its purpose: the study is the first attempt in the national art history to analyze works of some European realist artists of the 19th – early 20th centuries on the Roma theme represented in the works of narrative genre. This theme has not been actually studied, although it eloquently represents the growing interest in the subjective depiction of a wide-range life of various social strata and ethnic communities in the European countries and is one that influenced the formation of more positive attitude towards Roma people in the 19th – early 20th centuries, who were oppressed by the policies of national European states. Conclusions. The article analyzes some artistic works of Thomas Baker, August von Pettenkofen, Alfred Munnings as typical representatives of realistic painting in Europe of the 19th – early 20th centuries, whose creative heritage contains some storylines dedicated to Roma images in the context of socio-economic, spiritual and cultural aspects of Roma existence. It is emphasized that these artists, as leaders of public opinion, who were not indifferent to a difficult situation of Roma communities, improved the attitude of society thereto in this period. Two ideological and narrative trends have been described. The first describes difficult social and material situation, and the second focuses on creating an areola of romance around the life of Roma communities. Thus, it is established that the works of European artists not only drew attention to social and domestic problems of the Roma ethnic group, but also are typical examples of realistic painting of that period.

<p>This paper describes the design of a folded roof for a new 1500m2 gallery for the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London. It includes the description and development throughout the design stages of a unique roof system. It focuses on the optimisation of the geometrical shape of the roof both for structural efficiency and architectural quality. Parametrical modelling has been used both by the architects and engineers as a tool for option exploration and effective communication and collaboration. Automated design software was used to investigate a large number of structural configurations which have also benefited from early Contractor advice to evaluate their fabrication and construction implications.</p>

Introduction. The article deals with the issue of the quantity and composition of fish in the everyday life of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Methods and materials. The number and composition of “fish purchases” were calculated chronologically, which led to the use of the historical and comparative method both vertically (comparing fish prices from the 1570s to the 1610s) and horizontally (comparing fish prices in Moscow, Novgorod, and Kargopol). The volume of purchased goods, prices, and methods of transportation are established on the basis of the coming-expensive books of the treasurers of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery for 1592, 1601/02, 1605–1608, 1610/11, and 1612/13. The most informative were the “expendable memories” of the monastery elders and servants, preserved as part of the expensive books. Analysis. When analyzing the sources, the composition of the markets where fish were bought for monastic everyday life was established, the varieties and units of measurement of the purchased fish were identified, the total volume of goods was calculated, and the share of “fish purchases” in the total amount of expenses and in the amount of expenses for food products of the monastery was established in the late 16th – early 17th centuries. Results. As a result of the study, the representativeness of the coming-expensive books of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery for studying the development of commodity-money relations in the Russian state at the end of the 16th – early 17th centuries was established. Information about “fish purchases” demonstrates the price movement for different types of fish and the peculiarities of the folding of the all-Russian market. The data obtained make it possible to visually trace the sharp deterioration of the socio-economic condition of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery in 1609–1610, caused by the consequences of the siege and capture of the monastery by the troops of False Dmitry II.

Agnes Beatrice Warburg (1872-1953) was a British amateur photographer and active member of the Royal Photographic Society (RPS). The official collection of her works is housed at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and totals nearly 1000 black and white and colour photographs. Between about 1890 and 1949, Warburg experimented with nine different colour photographic and printing techniques, established the RPS Colour Group in 1927, and invented her own process called the War-type in 1918. This thesis will examine the hitherto untold history of Agnes B. Warburg, and narrate a history of early colour photography between 1907 and 1945, using her body of work as a reference. This approach allows us to see how amateur photographic practices informed and perpetuated the artistic and technical development of colour photography in the early 20th century, and in doing so provides us with a deeper understanding of photographic history.

Agnes Beatrice Warburg (1872-1953) was a British amateur photographer and active member of the Royal Photographic Society (RPS). The official collection of her works is housed at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and totals nearly 1000 black and white and colour photographs. Between about 1890 and 1949, Warburg experimented with nine different colour photographic and printing techniques, established the RPS Colour Group in 1927, and invented her own process called the War-type in 1918. This thesis will examine the hitherto untold history of Agnes B. Warburg, and narrate a history of early colour photography between 1907 and 1945, using her body of work as a reference. This approach allows us to see how amateur photographic practices informed and perpetuated the artistic and technical development of colour photography in the early 20th century, and in doing so provides us with a deeper understanding of photographic history.

In the prefatory article, the author analyzes the general legal aspects of e-government. As a complex phenomenon, e-government has to be studied on the basis of multi-disciplinary approach including technical, sociological and legal. It is such approach that allows to reveal its essence. However, each multi-disciplinary approach has to be specifically developed. As regards the legal approach, it will be shaped by the changing social relationships brought about by IT technologies. The legal analysis amounts, in its turn, to the formal logical, historical and comparative legal methods. The formal logical method allows to analyze the law which supports the development of e-government. The historical method is focused at the evolution of law in the digital age. The comparative method is especially important as it allows to demonstrate the general and particular trends whereby e-government is anchored in the legislation of countries with different legal and political traditions. The paper demonstrates how e-government has absorbed the traditions of the past development when the state took a constitutional, legal and social shape. In the new context, modern legal principles — in particular, those of digital equality and technological neutrality — are sought. Their development follows a complex path, from straightforward assertion to criticism and negation, and takes a remarkably short period of time, sometimes not more than two or three decades. The Editor’s note contains a summary of the documents produced by the XI International Conference “Law in the Digital Age” held with information support of the journal. The Conference featured a panel “E-Government: Legal Models in Russia and India”. This issue of the journal deals with governance problems in the digital age (L.К. Tereschenko “State Regulation and Deregulation: A Case of the Communication Industry”; N.А. Danilov “The Transformation of E-Government and E-Governance in the Digital Economic Context in Russia and Elsewhere”, D.А. Shevelko “Digitization in Russia: A Search for Legal Model”, А.S. Lolaeva “E-Democracy: A Constitutional Dimension”) and with legal aspects of platform development (N.A. Afifi, Reeta Sony A.L. “The Emergence of Online Delivery Platforms as Capital, Culture and Code: The Changing Paradigm”).

<i>Opus Anglicanum</i>: Masterpieces of English Medieval Embroidery: Victoria and Albert Museum, LondonOctober 1, 2016–February 5, 2017Catalogue<i>English Medieval Embroidery: <i>Opus Anglicanum</i></i>Edited by Clare Browne, Glyn Davies, and M. A. MichaelNew Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press in association with the Victoria and Albert Museum, 2016.336 pp.; 270 color ills.Cloth $75.00ISBN 9780300222005<i>The Age of <i>Opus Anglicanum</i></i>Edited by M. A. MichaelLondon: Brepols