Patriotism, Pledging Allegiance, and Public Schools: Lessons from Washington County in the 1940s

Abstract

THE PLEDGE OF ALLEGIANCE, first composed in nineteenth century, has once again become a topic of considerable editorial comment and political posturing in twenty-first century, as seventeen states have enacted new pledge laws or amended existing statutes.1 Nonetheless, there is little evidence that many citizens or elected officials are aware of history and consequences of attempts by patriotic organizations, local school districts, and state governments to define and require expressions of appropriate sentiments about nation's flag. This essay examines incidents at two schools in Washington County, Arkansas, during early 1940s, when public school children refused to pledge allegiance to because of their religious beliefs and suffered consequences. While these were certainly not only instances of controversy over salute in Arkansas schools in that period, Washington County episodes serve as an effective case study. They suggest something of motives, actions, and experiences of those involved in similar incidents across Arkansas and nation. The school movement began in 1888, when James Upham, head of premium department of Youth s Companion magazine, launched a four-year campaign to encourage display of United States flags in school classrooms, in order both to sell flags and to promote patriotism. The following year, Col. George Thatcher Balch introduced an American salute in his New York City kindergarten class, requiring students to stretch their right arm forward while pledging, We give our heads and our hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one Flag. Balch spread his ideas for inculcating by publishing a book, Methods of Teaching Patriotism in Public Schools, in 1890. Youth's Companion had already sold over 25,000 flags to public schools when it first published Pledge of Allegiance in its issue of September 8, 1892. It wished to promote nationalism in schools during celebration of that October's 400th anniversary of Columbus's arrival in Americas. Written by Francis Bellamy, a thirty-year-old assistant to editor of magazine, Pledge originally read, I pledge allegiance to Flag and to Republic for which it stands: one Nation indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all. Leaflets containing Pledge were distributed to public schools, and an estimated twelve million students recited Pledge on Columbus Day, 1892.3 The drums of war, as always, found public officials and professional patriots ready to seek national unity through force of law. In 1898, as United States went to war with Spain, New York legislature passed first statute mandating that each public school day open with a salute to and other patriotic exercises. What had begun as a youth magazine's publicity campaign to promote patriotism and sell flags had become a ritual required by law. During World War I, children of Mennonites were expelled from schools for refusing on religious grounds to recite Pledge of Allegiance, and, during 1920s, public school students of various religious backgrounds suffered similar fates from Delaware to Denver.4 During Red Scare following World War I, American Legion, Daughters of American Revolution, and other patriotic organizations urged public schools to stress 100 percent Americanism in curriculum. Arkansas was among states that acted. In 1923, General Assembly adopted laws requiring display of American at all educational institutions in state and mandating teaching of patriotism, both of which remain on statute books today.5 That summer, American Legion led call for first National Flag Conference to meet in Washington, D.C., and changed wording of Pledge of Allegiance, replacing my flag with the of United States, so that immigrants and their children could not covertly pledge allegiance to flags of their countries of origin. …