Abstract
Recently, the interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by pathogens like bacteria, fungi, and parasites has rapidly increased. Many of these pathogens actively modulate the immune responses of their host and there is accumulating evidence that pathogen-derived EV contribute to this process. The effects of pathogen-derived EV on the host immune system have been attributed to proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and glycans contained in, or present on these EV. For example, toxins in bacterial EV can modulate pathogen clearance and antigen presentation, while EV-associated polysaccharides are potential vaccine targets because they induce protective immune responses. Furthermore, parasite EV-associated microRNA may increase parasite survival via host gene repression, and the lipid A moiety of LPS in bacteria-derived EV induces strong pro-inflammatory responses. Research on pathogen EV-associated molecules may pave new avenues to combat infectious diseases by immune intervention. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge of EV-associated molecules released by extracellular pathogens and their effects on the host immune system. The current focus and future hotspots of this rapidly expanding field will be highlighted and discussed.
Highlights
An increasing number of studies documenting the molecular characteristics and the function of pathogen-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) suggest that pathogen EV play important roles in the activation and modulation of the host immune system
The observed effects of EV released by pathogens underline that intercellular communication via EV is a conserved mechanism that most likely benefits pathogen survival in co-evolution with its host
Immunomodulatory components of pathogenderived EV are represented in all molecular subclasses— proteins, lipids, glycans, and nucleic acids (Figure 2A)—and can modify host cell function or induce host cell apoptosis
Summary
An increasing number of studies documenting the molecular characteristics and the function of pathogen-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) suggest that pathogen EV play important roles in the activation and modulation of the host immune system. Various classes of molecules in pathogen-derived EV—proteins, lipids, glycans (carbohydrate chains), and nucleic acids—will be addressed with respect to molecular identity and function. With this approach we aim to outline the current. Extracellular vesicles are a collective term for exosomes, microvesicles, and other cell-derived membrane-enclosed vesicles These vesicles transport various molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids between cells within one organism or between organisms, such as in host–pathogen cross-talk. We focus on EV released by extracellular pathogens and their direct effects on the host
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