Abstract
BackgroundFather–child interactions are associated with improved developmental outcomes among infants. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has addressed the effects of paternal involvement on the neurodevelopment of infants who are less than 6 months of age, and no study has reported how maternal parenting stress mediates the relationship between paternal involvement and infant neurodevelopment during early infancy. This study investigates the direct and indirect relationship between paternal involvement and infant neurodevelopment at 3–4 months of age. The indirect relationship was assessed through the mediating factor of maternal parenting stress.MethodsThe participants were recruited through the Sesalmaul Research Center’s website from April to June 2014. The final data included 255 mothers and their healthy infants, who were aged 3–4 months. The mothers reported paternal involvement and maternal parenting stress by using Korean Parenting Alliance Inventory (K-PAI) and Parenting Stress Index (PSI), respectively. Experts visited the participants’ homes to observe infant neurodevelopment, and completed a developmental examination using Korean version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire II (K-ASQ II). A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used for data analysis.ResultsInfants’ mean ages were 106 days and girls accounted for 46.3%. The mean total scores (reference range) of the K-PAI, PSI, and the K-ASQ II were 55.5 (17–68), 45.8 (25–100), and 243.2 (0–300), respectively. Paternal involvement had a positive relationship with K-ASQ II scores (β = 0.29, p < 0.001) at 3–4 months of age, whereas maternal parenting stress was negatively related with K-ASQ II scores (β = −0.32, p < 0.001). Maternal parenting stress mediated the relationship between paternal involvement and early infant neurodevelopment (Z = 3.24, p < 0.001). A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that paternal involvement reduced maternal parenting stress (β = −0.25, p < 0.001), which led to positive infant outcomes (β = 0.23, p < 0.001).ConclusionsPaternal involvement is significantly associated with infant neurodevelopment during early infancy, and maternal parenting stress partially mediates that association. This result emphasizes the importance of fathers’ involvement and mothers’ parenting stress on early infant neurodevelopment.
Highlights
Father–child interactions are associated with improved developmental outcomes among infants
To the best of our knowledge, no study has investigated the presence of a mediation mechanism by showing that the effects of paternal involvement on early infant neurodevelopment are mediated through maternal parenting stress
Similar to the ASQ Korean-Ages and Stages Questionnaire II (II), the KASQ II is widely used and considered to be a valid measure of early infant neurodevelopment in Korea [22, 37]. This is the first study to show that paternal involvement is associated with infant neurodevelopment, even during early infancy, neurodevelopmental assessment at the age of 3–4 months is limited
Summary
Father–child interactions are associated with improved developmental outcomes among infants. Fathers can play an integral role as attachment figures, and positive perceptions of fathering are consistently and significantly associated with caregiving activities and paternal warmth [8] Fathers interact with their children differently from mothers, and healthy father–child interactions are associated with better neurodevelopmental outcomes for children later in life [9,10,11]. Paternal participation in caregiving and parenting changes according to infants’ age, and the paternal role is especially important in infancy [14] Despite these paternal contributions to infant development, only a few studies have been conducted on the father–infant relationship during early infancy [15, 16]. To the best of our knowledge, no study has investigated the presence of a mediation mechanism by showing that the effects of paternal involvement on early infant neurodevelopment are mediated through maternal parenting stress
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