Particulate Matter and Respiratory Symptoms among Adults Living in Windhoek, Namibia: A Cross Sectional Descriptive Study.

Ndinomholo Hamatui,Caryl Beynon

doi:10.3390/ijerph14020110

Abstract

This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and to assess respiratory health risks associated with Particulate Matter (PM) exposure among the residents of Windhoek, Namibia. Objectives: To measure particulate pollution concentration in Windhoek through monitoring of particulate matter concentration and to identify any associations between particulate pollution, individual location, and respiratory health among the Windhoek resident’s. Methods: an adapted standardized self-administered questionnaire was used to collect respiratory health related data as well as previous exposure, while PM monitoring was done using the ASTM (American Standard Test Method) D1739 reference method. Results: A high prevalence was observed for cough (43%), breathlessness (25%), and asthma (11.2%). PM was found to be a significant risk factor for episodes of coughing and phlegm, while high PM exposure category had an increased odds ratio (OR) for episodes of phlegm and cough (OR: 2.5, 95% CI (95% confidence intervals): 0.8–8.0). No association was observed between location and respiratory health outcomes. Conclusions: The study found high levels of PM concentration across all Windhoek suburbs which were above the German, American, and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Enactment of legislation relating to the control and monitoring of PM related emissions at the point of generation is required at both a country and city level.

Highlights

Particulate Matter (PM) refers to a mixture of coarse and fine solid materials combined with liquid droplets; it has the ability to remain suspended in the air [1,2]
Health effects associated with PM exposure depends greatly on the PM size, morphology, elemental constituents, and frequency of exposure, which can be further influenced by individual socioeconomic status and lifestyle [1,2,4,5,6]
The majority of respondents were unmarried (73.8%), only a small fraction of the respondents reported that they smoked cigarettes (7.5%), and there was no difference between the proportion of ex- smokers and current smokers in the studied population

Summary

Introduction

Particulate Matter (PM) refers to a mixture of coarse and fine solid materials combined with liquid droplets; it has the ability to remain suspended in the air [1,2] Particle pollutants are both primary and secondary in nature, with most primary particulate pollutants, especially the fine PM, originating from anthropogenic activities such as the combustion process at domestic and industrial settings [1,3]. Health effects associated with PM exposure depends greatly on the PM size, morphology, elemental constituents, and frequency of exposure, which can be further influenced by individual socioeconomic status and lifestyle [1,2,4,5,6]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2012 the ambient air quality contributed to 3.7 billion premature deaths globally, accounting for 80% of premature deaths (defined as early end of individual life before expected age) [7]. In 2014, WHO reported that, globally, 14% of Chronic Obstruction Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) related deaths and acute lower respiratory infections and 6% of lung cancer related deaths were attributed to

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Discussion

Conclusion