Parental Investments and Educational Outcomes: Trivers–Willard in the U.S.

Rosemary L Hopcroft,David O Martin

doi:10.3389/fsoc.2016.00003

Rosemary L Hopcroft, David O Martin

Open Access

https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2016.00003

Copy DOI

Abstract

In the U.S. there is evidence of a Trivers-Willard (T-W) effect in educational attainment, such that the sons of high status fathers attain more education than the daughters, and the daughters of low status fathers attain more education than the sons. This paper seeks to uncover the mechanisms by which this T-W effect occurs. Data are from the High School and Beyond Study by the U.S. National Center for Education Statistics. Results show that the T-W effect is not a result of the fact that fathers are less likely to be present in the homes of children of low status fathers. Other results show that the sons of high status fathers are more likely than daughters to be sent to private high school, while the daughters of low status fathers are more likely than sons to be sent to private high school. These parental investments pay off, as the sex gap in academic GPAS (favoring women) is narrower for the children of high status fathers than the children of low status fathers. In turn, academic GPA in high school helps explain the T-W effect in educational attainment. Parental non-financial investment as measured by student academic expectations as sophomores in high school also helps explain why the sons of high status fathers obtain higher degrees than the daughters. Together, these two factors: student’s academic GPA in high school and his /her expectations of educational attainment, fully explain the T-W effect in educational attainment in the U.S.

Highlights

The Trivers–Willard ( T–W) hypothesis predicts mothers in good condition will invest more in sons, whereas mothers in poorer condition will invest more in daughters (Trivers, 1972; Trivers and Willard, 1973)
Similar findings have been found outside of the U.S For example, Bereczkei and Dunbar (1997) find that the average number of years of education completed by children was higher for Gypsy girls than that completed by Gypsy boys, whereas the number of years of education completed by Hungarian boys was higher than that completed by Hungarian girls
The results show that the sons of high status fathers are more likely than daughters to attend a private high school, are less extensively employed during high school than the sons of low status men, and are less likely to save money from their work than the sons of low status men

Summary

Introduction

The Trivers–Willard ( T–W) hypothesis predicts mothers in good condition will invest more in sons, whereas mothers in poorer condition will invest more in daughters (Trivers, 1972; Trivers and Willard, 1973). Trivers and Willard (1973) further note that “the model can be applied to humans differentiated on a socioeconomic scale, as long as the reproductive success of a male at the upper end of the scale exceeds his sister’s, while that of a female at the lower end of the scale exceeds her brother’s.”. This suggests that in a stratified society high status mothers will invest more in male offspring, and low status mothers will invest more in female offspring. This is the strategy that will maximize reproductive success, given that in a stratified society, the children of high status mothers are likely

Objectives

Results

Conclusion