Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an extremely infectious viral infection of cloven-hoofed animals which is highly challenging to control and can give rise to national animal health crises, especially if there is a lack of pre-existing immunity due to the emergence of new strains or following incursions into disease-free regions. The 2001 FMD epidemic in the UK was on a scale that initially overwhelmed the national veterinary services and was eventually controlled by livestock lockdown and slaughter on an unprecedented scale. In 2020, the rapid emergence of COVID-19 has led to a human pandemic unparalleled in living memory. The enormous logistics of multi-agency control efforts for COVID-19 are reminiscent of the 2001 FMD epidemic in the UK, as are the use of movement restrictions, not normally a feature of human disease control. The UK experience is internationally relevant as few countries have experienced national epidemic crises for both diseases. In this review, we reflect on the experiences and lessons learnt from UK and international responses to FMD and COVID-19 with respect to their management, including the challenge of preclinical viral transmission, threat awareness, early detection, different interpretations of scientific information, lockdown, biosecurity behaviour change, shortage of testing capacity and the choices for eradication versus living with infection. A major lesson is that the similarity of issues and critical resources needed to manage large-scale outbreaks demonstrates that there is benefit to a ‘One Health’ approach to preparedness, with potential for greater cooperation in planning and the consideration of shared critical resources.
Highlights
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious viral disease with a massive economic impact on livestock sectors and livelihoods where it is endemic and through outbreaks in FMD-free countries (Europe, most of the Americas, parts of southern Africa and Oceania) due to production losses, costs of control and trade restrictions [1]
There are globally relevant similarities in the control measures applied, many of which are routinely used in animal health but rarely for human diseases in recent times
An eradication scenario for SARS-CoV-2, as used in FMD in the UK in 2001 (FMD2001), appears to be the strategy chosen by a few countries with low case numbers, such as New Zealand, which to a certain extent may be a result of their existing stringent import and border controls and their relative isolation, but like FMD-free countries, ongoing restrictions are needed to prevent virus incursions and protect the highly susceptible population
Summary
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly infectious viral disease with a massive economic impact on livestock sectors and livelihoods where it is endemic (much of Africa and Asia) and through outbreaks in FMD-free countries (Europe, most of the Americas, parts of southern Africa and Oceania) due to production losses, costs of control and trade restrictions [1]. Comparison of the emergence and management of COVID-19 and FMD in the UK in 2001 (FMD2001) is apt, given the similarities in disease transmission. FMD is caused by an RNA virus in the Picornavirus family with a high mutation rate, seven serotypes and periodic emergence of new strains. It is highly infectious, with aerogenic infection as the main route of transmission between ruminants in direct contact. The relative importance of direct and indirect transmission modes is difficult to quantify [4], but significant farm-to-farm spread can continue after imposition of complete animal movement standstills, in areas of high farm density [5]. Like FMDV, COVID-19 is highly contagious and thought to be transmitted by a combination of respiratory droplets/aerosols and fomites; significant knowledge gaps remain (see electronic supplementary material, table S1) [7]
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