Abstract
Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) are colonial anemones that contain one of the deadliest toxins ever discovered, palytoxin (LD50 in mice 300 ng/kg), but it is generally believed that highly toxic species are not sold in the home aquarium trade. We previously showed that an unintentionally introduced zoanthid in a home aquarium contained high concentrations of palytoxin and was likely responsible for a severe respiratory reaction when an individual attempted to eliminate the contaminant colonies using boiling water. To assess the availability and potential exposure of palytoxin to marine aquarium hobbyists, we analyzed zoanthid samples collected from local aquarium stores for palytoxin using liquid chromatography and high resolution mass spectrometry and attempted to identify the specimens through genetic analysis of 16S and cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) markers. We found four specimens of the same apparent species of zoanthid, that we described previously to be responsible for a severe respiratory reaction in a home aquarium, to be available in three aquarium stores in the Washington D.C. area. We found all of these specimens (n = 4) to be highly toxic with palytoxin or palytoxin-like compounds (range 0.5–3.5 mg crude toxin/g zoanthid). One of the most potent non-protein compounds ever discovered is present in dangerous quantities in a select species of zoanthid commonly sold in the home aquarium trade.
Highlights
In the late 1950’s, Dr Albert H. (Hank) Banner began a program at the University of Hawaii to search for the elusive cause of ciguatera fish poisoning [1]
Toxin Analysis After our initial finding of a highly toxic Palythoa sp. in a home aquarium in Virginia [sample ‘‘Virginia zoanthid’’, described in Deeds and Schwartz [8], (Fig. 1)], we visited a local aquarium store known to carry zoanthids and purchased every visually distinct variety of zoanthid they had for sale (n = 7)
Among the specimens purchased from aquarium store #1, only sample 305.11.2 was morphologically similar to the Virginia zoanthid sample (Fig. 1, Fig. 2C)
Summary
In the late 1950’s, Dr Albert H. (Hank) Banner began a program at the University of Hawaii to search for the elusive cause of ciguatera fish poisoning [1]. Dr Philip Helfrich, a young researcher hired by Banner, began this search by investigating an entry in the Hawaiian dictionary for the ‘‘limu-make-o-Hana’’ (rough translation deadly seaweed of Hana) [2]. This legend dates back to Hawaiian antiquity with tales of Shark Gods, sacred pools, and a seaweed when applied to a warrior’s spear would ‘‘bring sure death’’ to their enemies. Much of the structural elucidation of palytoxin would be determined from less toxic, but far more abundant, species such as Palythoa tuberculosa [6,7] none were ever found to be as potent as the samples collected from the tidepools at Mu9olea. The legendary limu appears to be exacting its ancient curse once again, but this time upon unsuspecting marine home aquarists
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